Species Accounts - Cyprinidae - Cyprinus
Genus Cyprinus
Linnaeus, 1758
The carp genus is found in Europe and Asia and comprises several species of which one has been widely introduced as a food fish.
This genus is characterised by a compressed but heavy body, large size, rounded snout, 2 pairs of barbels, large molar pharyngeal teeth in 3 rows, a very long dorsal fin with the last unbranched ray spine-like and serrated, the anal fin short but with the last unbranched ray spine-like and serrated, the gut is moderately long, and the dorsal and lateral skull bones are sculptured.
Cyprinus carpio
Linnaeus, 1758
Common names
كپور (= kopur, kapur or kapoor (in Gilaki)), kapur-e ainehi (= mirror carp), كپور معمولي (kapur-e ma'mouli or mar'mulleh or ma'muli or maamoli (= common carp)), rashti or كپور رشتي (kapur-e Rashti) in Khuzestan (because their origin was Rasht), mahi-ye gul (= flower fish, meaning in this sense a good fish).
[car or carp shaeeh in Arabic; caki in Azerbaijan; geitan-tsatsan or dliter, both in Armenia; sazan for wild and karp for cultured carp in Russian; common carp, European carp, German carp, wild carp; mirror carp, leather carp, line carp, naked carp (last four referring to scalation), koi (aquarium variety)].
Systematics
Cyprinus Carpio was originally described from Europe. Cyprinus carpio var. caspicus Walbaum, 1792 is described from the mouth of the Volga and Don rivers but is infrasubspecific and the name has not been used in Iran nor has Cyprinus carpio fluviatilis Pravdin, 1945 described from floodplain lakes of the Volga River near Saratov.
Key characters
This species is easily identified by the long dorsal fin, the spine in both the dorsal and anal fins, and the two pairs of barbels.
Morphology
Dorsal fin with 2-5 unbranched rays followed by 14-23, usually 18-20, branched rays, anal fin with 2-4, usually 3, unbranched rays followed by 3-7, usually 5, branched rays, pectoral fin branched rays 13-19, and pelvic fin branched rays 5-9, usually 8. The dorsal fin has the last unbranched ray developed as a toothed spine and the anal fin has a similar spine. Lateral line scales 26-41, mostly 36-39. Scales may be absent (leather carp), restricted to a few, enlarged scales (mirror carp), or only a mid-lateral row of scales (line carp), in cultivated varieties. Wild carp are fully scaled. Individual scales have a central focus, wavy anterior margin, few radii on the anterior and posterior fields in young fish, and medium numbers of radii on fish 12-14 cm standard length. There are numerous fine circuli and the posterior scale field breaks up into bubble-like structures. Gill rakers 17-29 (some literature counts may be lower arm of arch only and there may be size-related variation too) and vertebrae 32-39 (lower counts may not include Weberian vertebrae). Rakers touch the second raker below when appressed and have a row of knobs on their medial surface. Pharyngeal teeth 1,1,3-3,1,1 with variants 1,2,3-3,2,1, 1,2,3-3,1,1, 1,1,1,3-3,1,1, 1,1,3-2,1,1 and 1,3-3,1,1. Posterior major row teeth are large with flattened crowns bearing wavy ridges while more anterior teeth are a rounded knob, or even concave on top of the knob. The gut is elongate with several coils. This species is a tetraploid (2n=98-104)(Al-Sabti, 1986; Klinkhardt et al., 1995).
Meristic values for Iranian specimens are:- dorsal fin branched rays 16(1), 17(5), 18(18), 19(16), 20(10); anal fin branched rays 4(1) or 5(49); pectoral fin branched rays 14(1), 15(7), 16(25), 17(16) or 18(1); pelvic fin branched rays 6(1), 7(6) or 8(43); lateral line scales 34(2), 35(6), 36(10), 37(26) or 38(6); total gill rakers 18(1), 20(2), 21(11), 22(11), 23(15), 24(4), 25(4) or 26(2); total vertebrae 36(1), 37(19), 38(26) and 39(6); and pharyngeal teeth ?. Note that these samples may include individuals which are not native but introduced for fish farming from stocks outside Iran.
There are morphometric and meristic differences between carp from the southwestern and southeastern Caspian Sea but these are ecological not taxonomic. Also, carp from the Anzali Mordab differ from those in the sea by having a longer head, snout, eye and postorbital region (although of course some of these are redundant), greater interorbital width, shorter predorsal and preanal distances, shorter dorsal, anal, pectoral and caudal fins, and a lower anal fin (A. M. Shukolyukov in Berg (1948-1949)). Yousefian (2004) found carp from the Caspian Sea in Iran had a dominant genotype different from those in a fish farm. Meristics (scales and fin rays) and morphometrics (head length and body width) also differed.
Sexual dimorphism
Females are deeper bodied than males because of their eggs and the distance between the pectoral and pelvic fins and the pelvic and anal fins is more. Dorsal and anal fins in males are higher, the anal fin is longer at the base, the pectoral fin is longer and the lobes of the caudal fin are longer. This is accounted for by the greater swimming activity of males during spawning (Kuliyev and Agayarova, 1984). Breeding males have fine tubercles on the head, particularly on the anterior operculum and preoperculum and under the eye, above the lateral line and more frequently below it, and on the fin rays.
Colour
In semi-diadromous carp from the Kura region of the southwest Caspian Sea, the overall body colour is dark yellow, the flanks being golden-yellow with dark shading, and the back is black. The belly and fins are light yellow and the caudal fin is reddish. Lake populations are darker. Young fish from Iran are silvery on the flanks (but not as bright as Carassius auratus), greyish on the back, silver-pearl on the belly, the iris is silvery with grey above and below, the dorsal fin and upper caudal lobe are pale grey, the lower caudal lobe and anal fin are orange, the pelvic fin is pale orange, and the pectoral fin has only traces of orange. The caudal fin may be yellow-orange with lobe margins red. The freshwater resident form in the Anzali Mordab is yellowish, the semi-diadromous form dark. The peritoneum is grey to silvery and may be speckled.
Size
Carp resident in fresh waters are smaller than semi-diadromous carp. In the 1950s in Iran, carp catches were 20-41 cm long (Farid-Pak, no date). Fish up to 1 m long are caught in the Caspian basin (A. Abdoli, pers. comm., 1995). Maximum size exceeds 1.2 m and 68 kg.
Distribution
Widely introduced in the Middle East for aquaculture. Found naturally in Iran in the whole Caspian Sea drainage, it is also widely stocked in the provinces of Gilan and Mazandaran (Petr, 1987; Abbasi et al., 1999). It is reported from the Atrak, Gorgan, Gharasu, Tajan, Babol, Aras, and Safid rivers, the Anzali Mordab and the Siah-Keshim Protected Region, Gorgan Bay, the southeast Caspian Sea, southwest Caspian Sea and south-central Caspian Sea as an introduced species, and in all these plus the Haraz and Pol-e Rud rivers as a native species (Riazi, 1996; Kiabi et al., 1999).
It is probably native to the Tedzhen River of Turkmenistan (the Hari River or Harirud in Iran) (Aliev et al., 1988). This species is also recorded from the Karakum Canal and Kopetdag Reservoir in Turkmenistan (Shakirova and Sukhanova, 1994; Sal'nikov, 1995) and may eventually reach Iranian waters in the Tedzhen (= Hari) River basin. These latter stocks may be introduced.
It has been introduced to the Sistan basin to a canal flowing into the Chahnimeh, the Sistan Dam and the Hamun Kushk (Ahmadi and Wossughi, 1988; J. Holčík, in litt., 1996), to the Karaj River in the Namak Lake basin, to the Mahabad Dam (Abdi, 1999; www.mondialvet99.com, downloaded 31 May 2000), to the Haft Barm lakes near Shiraz in 1984 (Petr, 1987), to the Manjil Reservoir on the Safid Rud (Nümann, 1966), to Mehr Dasht Lake, Markazi, to the Zayandeh River Dam (Y. Keivany, in litt., 1992; Ghorbani Chafi, 2000), to Lake Zaribar, Kordestan (Abzeeyan, 5(5):III, 1994), to Lake Famur from nearby fish farms (Maafi, 1996b), to the Kor River basin in Fars (A. Alamdari, in litt., 1997; M. Hafezieh, in litt., 1997), throughout Khuzestan Province (not caught in the 1970s), and to numerous other water bodies and ponds throughout Iran where it reproduces in the wild. Mirror carp found in the Shadegan marshes of Khuzestan are escapees from fish farms. Carp in the Bahu Kalat and Sarbaz rivers of Baluchestan are also escapees from fish farms (A. Mobaraki, pers. comm., June 1999).
Abdoli (2000) records this species as present generally in the Lut, Sistan, Kavir and Yazd basins; in lower reaches of rivers from the Gorgan to the Astara and along the Caspian coast, the middle Aras River; the Kashaf River in Khorasan; the middle and lower Talkheh River and Tatavi River in the Orumiyeh basin; the Qareh Chai and Qom rivers in the Namak Lake basin; the middle to lower Zayandeh River in the Esfahan basin; the Aravand, lower Karun, Jarrahi, lower Karkheh rivers in the Tigris River basin; the middle Halil River in the Jaz Murian basin; and the middle and upper Kul River including the Shur River tributary in the Hormozgan basin. Jalali et al. (2005) records this species from the Dez, Karun and Zayandeh rivers, the Vahdat reservoir, and the Zarivar and Kaftar lakes.
Zoogeography
The natural distribution of the carp is supposed to be Asia Minor and the Caspian Sea basin where its origins lie in the late Pliocene. From this area, modern wild carp spread east and west, perhaps as late as the last postglacial thermal optimum, and latterly aided by man (Balon, 1974; 1995; Van Damme et al., 2007). Iranian carp may be a mixture of native and introduced stocks (or species - see Kottelat (1997) - but this remains unresolved). It is probably not now possible to describe the native stocks systematically because of admixtures of farmed stocks. All domestic forms probably originated from native Danube River stocks (Bănărescu, Barus and Peňáz in Bănărescu and Paepke, 2002).
Habitat
This species favours an abundance of soft vegetation in shallow water, necessary for successful reproduction. Still waters are preferred but they are found in the lower courses of lowland rivers with moderately flowing water, and occasionally in water exceeding 2 m/sec. They can often be seen basking at the surface or feeding on algae and their dorsal fins break the water surface. Large fish often move into shallows in the afternoon and evening. Carp also leap from the water but the reason is unknown. They rarely descend below 30 m in lakes and avoid fast water in streams. Carp overwinter in depressions in the lower reaches of rivers in the Caspian basin. There are both freshwater resident populations in the Caspian basin and diadromous (or semi-diadromous) ones, the latter living in brackish water near river mouths and only entering fresh water to spawn. The migration up the Ural River may reach 60 km from the river mouth. Some fish apparently spawn in the brackish waters of shallow coastal areas in the Caspian. Knipovich (1921) reports fish in the Iranian Caspian Sea down to 11.9-12.3 m. Riazi (1996) and Karimpour (1998) report that this species is both native (resident) to, and migrates to, the Siah-Keshim Protected Region of the Anzali Mordab.
Carp have a salinity tolerance under experimental conditions of up to 8‰, and for short periods 18.6‰ with acclimation, and this has significance for survival of carp in the Caspian Sea and in waters of southern Iran and Iraq where this species is farmed. Hafezamini and Oryan (2002) and Hafezamini et al. (2003) however found that, under experimental conditions, all fish in their study died at 18‰ in less than 12 hours. Carp eggs hatch in water up to 10‰, with the favourable level being up to 6.6‰ (Al-Hamed, 1971).
Low dissolved oxygen concentrations of 3 mg/l are tolerated and levels as low as 0.5 mg/l can be withstood for 2-3 hours. Normal growth has occurred in fish kept at 35°C. The immune response of carp following exposure to the organophosphate malathion has been studied by Soltani et al. (2003).
This species is considered to be a dominant species in the Karun River along with Barbus grypus (Iranian Fisheries Research and Training Organization Newsletter, 17:1, 1997).
Introduced to Iraqi waters in 1960 as juveniles, this species rapidly became established (Ahmed and Taher, 1988). Cyprinus carpio was caught in large numbers in the Shatt al Arab of Iraq down to the estuary after an increase in the discharge of the Tigris River reduced salinity (N. A. Hussain, in litt., 1994).
Age and growth
Females are larger and mature a year later than males. Sexual maturity is attained in the second year of life, and in a few individuals even by the end of the first year, in the southeastern Caspian Sea; but in the southwestern Caspian Sea this occurs in the third and fourth years (Kuliyev and Agayarova, 1984). Resident carp in Dagestan mature in their third year at about 30 cm and have an average life span of 6 years whereas the semi-anadromous or semi-diadromous form matures in its fourth year at 35-36 cm and has an average life span of 8 years (Shikhshabekov, 1969). Growth is faster in the Kura River of Azerbaijan than in other populations in the Caspian but maturity is later at age 4 or more usually at 5 years. Freshwater residents in the Anzali Mordab are slow-growing compared to the semi-diadromous form and are less common. Fish taken in the commercial operations in Iran were 3-7 years old, 31.0-63.0 cm long and weighed 539-3375 g (Razivi et al., 1972).
This species was stocked in the Dukan and Derbendikhan dams of Iraq in the 1960s where fish up to 3 years of age were reported by Ciepielewski et al. (2001). Decreasing growth rates indicate conditions are not too favourable although growth in the first two years is comparable with that in lakes of central Iraq. The condition coefficient (K) was higher among smaller fish, e.g. fish from Dukan at 230 g had a K of 2.32, at 1 kg K was 1.75. Ahmed and Taher (1989) examined the growth of 0+ carp in Hawr al Hammar, Iraq found the length-weight relationship to be W = 0.00004627 L2.8022 and derived the growth equation Lt = 189.87 (1-e-0.0158 (t + 25.662)) with a calculated length at the end of the first year of life of 189.87 mm. This is relatively larger than for other parts of the world, indicating a successful introduction of this exotic. Al-Nasiri and Dawood (1991) found the smallest mature male was 182 mm and the smallest female was 184 mm in Hawr al Hammar, with sexual maturity achieved in the first year of life. Maximum life span was 8+ years. Epler et al. (2001) found the oldest age groups in Iraqi lakes to be 5+ in Lake Habbaniyah and 3+ in Lake Razzazah. The mean condition factor was 1.47 for Lake Habbaniyah and 1.50 for Lake Razzazah.
In Sariyar Dam Lake near Ankara in central Anatolia, ages range from 0 to 18 years (Ekmekci, 1996b). In their first year, fish have an average fork length of 103 mm and weigh 24 g, in 5 years they average 357 mm and 822 g, and in 10 years 580 mm and 3365 g. In Gölhisar Lake by contrast, a small water body in western Turkey, age composition was from 1 to 6 years and fish attained a maximum of 494 mm and 1922 g (Alp and Balik, 2000).
Maximum life span for this species is reported as 47 years for domestic fish.
Food
Food is derived from browsing on the substrate at all hours, if the temperature is favourable. Browsing muddies the water and can inhibit other species and uproot plants. Mouthfuls of bottom ooze are taken up, spat out and the food items selected. These include aquatic insects, crustaceans, worms and molluscs, and more rarely, fish. Plant material is ground up by the molar pharyngeal teeth and includes algae, seeds, wild rice, leaves and various aquatic plants. Organic sewage is also eaten. Some surface feeding on algal mats or insects will also occur. Feeding almost completely stops in winter and the fish go into a form of hibernation.
Feeding in the Hawr al Hammar, Iraq is related to temperature, the peak intensities being July and the minimum in January with peak activity in September and minimum in January. Feeding does occur year round and smaller fish (<200 mm) have highest feeding activity in spring while adults have this in summer (Hussein et al., 2000a). In a study of the recovering Hawr al Hammar, diet was 25.45% algae, 18.18% snails, 12.73% diatoms and 12.73% copepods, 10.91% insects with plants, cladocerans and shrimps at less than 10% each, in the Hawr al Hawizah diet was 27.3% snails, 18.2% insects and 12.1% for algae, plants and cladocerans with fish, diatoms and copepods at less than 10% each, and in the Al Kaba'ish (= Chabaish) Marsh 33.3% algae, 20.4% insects, 11.1% snails and diatoms and plants at 10.2, with various crustaceans at less than 10% each (Hussain et al., 2006). Hussein et al. (1991) examined diet in the Garma Marshes, Iraq and found crustaceans, molluscs, aquatic plants and seeds, aquatic insects, oligochaetes and fish to be dietary items, selection and numbers varying with carp size and season. Some fish were found to have fed exclusively on only a single, different mollusc species, presumably as opportunity presented. Al-Shamma'a et al. (1996) examined the food of this species in Al Qadisiyah Reservoir, Iraq and found plants, their seeds, molluscs and aquatic insects, all bottom foods. Mangalo and Akbar (1988a, 1988b) studied the food of carp in a farm pond at Al-Latifiyah, Baghdad where zooplankton was the principal diet. The gill rakers show an efficient structure for filtration, indicative of a phytoplanktivorous and omnivorous feeding (Salman et al., 1993). Salman et al. (1994) report a mixture of animal and plant foods, with zooplankton a dominant component of all length groups. The gut is coiled and 3.42 times standard length, indicating omnivory with plant food being important. Epler et al. (2001) gave the diet in Lake Habbaniyah, Iraq as 51.7% plants, 15.7% oligochaetes, 15.2% tendipedids, 7.2% molluscs, 5.2% detritus and 4.1% cladocerans. They also found that where there is significant competition between autochthonous species, as here, carp become another strong competitor for food. Dietary coincidence between carp and shabbout, gattan and himri was 58.5, 68.5 and 54.2 % respectively. Hussein et al. (2000b; 2000c) examined dietary overlap between this species and three native carps in the Hawr al Hammar. Overlap with Barbus sharpeyi was the weakest as this species is a herbivore but small B. luteus (<200 mm) and B. xanthopterus showed strong overlaps. This overlap may explain the decline in some native carps. Hussain and Ali (2006) also examined feeding relationships among fishes in the Hawr al Hammar and found this species to be a carnivore, 26.4% of the diet being crustaceans, 12.7% insects and 30.5% molluscs. Dietary overlap of 84% was found between this species and Barbus xanthopterus but the availability of food resources offset possible competition, contrasting with the conclusions above. Ciepielewski et al. (2001) found the diet of this species in the Dukan and Derbendikhan reservoirs in Iraq to be mainly algae, copepods and chironomids.
Reproduction
Under natural conditions, males spend more time on the spawning grounds than females and spawn several times. More than 7 million eggs up to 1.71 mm in diameter may be present in a female but only about 500 are laid at a time. Wild carp in the Atrek River had a fecundity range of 16,000 to 543,000 eggs (Bănărescu, Barus and Peňáz in Bănărescu and Paepke, 2002). The resident form is less fecund by about half than the semi-anadromous form (Shikhshabekov, 1969). In the Anzali Mordab a mass spawning run takes place in April with spawning in April-May. The first migratory fish are seen as early as January. Shallow weedy areas or the mouths of rivers are used as spawning sites and adhesive eggs are laid on plants.
Resident populations in Dagestan spawn earlier, by about a month, than the semi-anadromous population which spawn in early May (Shikhshabekov, 1969). Spawning time variations are governed by temperature and the most favourable temperature is 18-20°C.
Carp ascend the Kura River of Azerbaijan in spring and autumn. The spring run begins in mid-March and peaks in April while the weak autumn run lasts from August to mid-October.
Carp have feeding grounds in the coastal waters of the southeastern Caspian Sea and enter the Atrak River in winter to spawn between February and April. Young migrate downstream, this movement ending in July when the river flow is minimal or ceases. When there is no flood, spawning does not occur (Petr, 1987).
Fish in Iraqi ponds grew 25-30 cm in the first year of life and matured in 1-2 years. At 16-26ºC they spawned from late February to late April and again in the autumn (Al-Hamed, 1960). Palm tree fibres were used for egg deposition and eggs hatched in 4-8 days. Al-Nasiri and Dawood (1991) found a fecundity range of 14,150-1,492,500 eggs in Hawr al Hammar with a mean relative fecundity of 182 eggs/g of body weight, and a egg diameters of 0.90-1.02 mm. The gonadosomatic index indicated spawning in March and possibly October-November. Epler et al. (2001) studied reproduction in lakes Tharthar and Habbaniyah and found both sexes to achieve maturity in the first year of life at 13.5 cm for males and 12.6 cm for females. Spawning occurred in May and fecundity was 186-531 thousand eggs/kg body mass.
The spawning behaviour involves stimulation of a female while moving over vegetation and being accompanied by 2-3 males, active movement and spawning being induced by blows from the male(s). The eggs adhere to the vegetation or are lost. Most eggs are shed at night or in the early morning.
Parasites and predators
Eslami and Anwar (1971) record the cestode Caryophyllaeus fimbriceps from this species on the Caspian coast of Iran. Mokhayer (1976b) records the cestodes Bothriocephalus gowkongensis, the nematode larva Anisakis and the acanthocephalan Pomphorhynchus perforator. Mokhayer (1989) reports metacercariae of the eye fluke, Diplostomum spathaceum from this species in Iran, which can cause complete blindness and death in commercially important species. Jalali and Molnár (1990b) variously record the monogeneans Dactylogyrus anchoratus, D. extensus, D. sahuensis and D. vastator from carp on fish farms throughout Iran and Naem (2002) records D. anchoratus from fish in the Safid River.
Moghainemi and Abbasi (1992) record a wide range of parasites from this species in the Hawr al-Azim in Khuzestan. Mortazaei et al. (2000) record an infection rate of 66% (2 of 3 fish) with the worm Bothriocephalus opsariichthydis in Khuzestan marshes. Sattari and Faramarzi (1997) record Caryophyllaeus fimbriceps, C. laticeps and C. brachycollis from 38% of carp in the Anzali lagoon. Akhlagi (1999; 2000) reports that high temperatures (up to 32°C) stresses this species and leaves it open to infection with Aeromonas hydrophila. Safari and Khandagi (1999) record Clostridium botulinum from 3.8% of fresh and smoked samples of this species in Mazandaran Province. Mousavi and Khosravi (1999; www.mondialvet99.com, downloaded 31 May 2000) record the toxigenic fungi Aspergillus flavus, Alternaria, Penicillium and Fusarium from this species and the pond water at a fish farm in northern Iran. Farahnak (2000) records Anisakidae from this species in Khuzestan. Akhondzadeh et al. (2002) and Akhondzadeh Basti and Zahrae Salehi (2003) show that the psychotropic pathogen Listeria monocytogenes is found in market and fish farm samples of this species. Masoumian et al. (2002) investigated parasites from this fish in the Aras and Mahabad dams in northwest Iran and found the protozoan Goussia carpelli, also known from carp in the Safid River. Ebrahimzadeh Mousavi et al. (2005) isolated the fungus Branchiomyces spp. from gill lesions of farmed carp in northern Iran. Branchiomycosis or gill rot is a major problem in commercial fish production.
The intestinal helminth Bothriocephalus gowkongensis was recorded from this species on fish farms in West Azarbayjan Province (Azarvandi et al., 1999). Naem et al. (2002) found the following parasites on the gills of this species from the western branch of the Safid River, namely the protozoans Ichthyophthirius multifilis and a Trichodina species, a copepod crustacean Lernaea sp., monogenean trematodes Dactylogyrus anchoratum, and D. achmerowi. Jalali et al. (2002) and Jalali and Barzegar (2006) record parasites from this species in Lake Zarivar, namely Trichodina pediculus, Dactylogyrus extensus, Gyrodactylus stankovici, Diplostomum spathaceum two species of Argulus, Pseudocapillaria tomentosa and Lernaea cyprinacea. Jalali et al. (2005) summarise the occurrence of Gyrodactylus species in Iran and record G. cyprini, G. elegans, G. shulmani, G. sprostonae, G. stankovici and G. sp. from various localities for the carp. Farahnak et al. (2002) record Contracaecum sp. and Anisakis sp. from this fish in Khuzestan Province. Mehdipoor et al. (2004) record the monogenean Dactylogyrus extensus in Zayandeh River fish. Araghi Soureh and Jalali Jafari (2006) recorded Dactylogyrus extensus from this species in the Mahabad River of the Lake Orumiyeh basin. Barzegar and Jalali (2006) report parasites in this species from Kaftar Lake as Lernaea cyprinacea, Trichodina sp., Dermocystidium sp., Dactylogyrus extensus, D. anchoratus, Gyrodactylus sp. and Diplostomum spathaceum. Khara et al. (2006b) record the cestode Caryophyllaeus fimbriceps from this species in the Boojagh Wetland of the Caspian coast. Pazooki et al. (2007) recorded various parasites from localities in West Azarbayjan Province, namely Diplostomum spathaceum, Ligula intestinalis, Digrama sp. and Argulus foliaceus. Sattari et al. (2007) record the cestode Caryophyllaeus fimbriceps, the digenean Diplostomum spathaceum and the monogeneans Dactylogyrus extensus, Gyrodactylus sp. and Diplozoon sp. in this species in the Anzali wetland of the Caspian shore and also mention that the Caryophyllaeus laticeps is also known from this species in the Iranian Caspian Sea.
The Caspian seal, Pusa caspica, is a significant predator on this species (Krylov, 1984). Esox lucius, Sander lucioperca and Silurus glanis are all predators on small carp. A wide variety of other fishes and birds eat smaller carp as do predatory aquatic insects, frogs and toads. Carp eggs are eaten by many fishes. Adult carp are too large for most predators to take.
Economic importance
Balon (1974) details domestication of the carp which has been a cultivated fish for over 2000 years. The carp is an important table fish in Iraq where details of farming techniques are given by Ahmed and Taher (1988) and by Mangalo and Akbar (1988a; 1988b). Catches in former Soviet waters of the Caspian Sea were described by Kuliyev and Agayarova (1984). In the southwestern part, size range was 21-64 cm in 1960-1961 (92% of fish were 29-41 cm) but in 1972 95% of fish were 31-55 cm. The smallest carp are caught in the southeastern Caspian where maximum weight was 3.97 kg as opposed to 10.0 kg in the central Caspian. Spawning fish in the southeastern Caspian were only 0.58-1.0 kg while in the southwestern Caspian carp were 0.25-5.75 kg. About 17-30% of commercial catches in the Volga region are estimated to be comprised of hatchery production (Petr, 1987).
Nevraev (1929) gives catches for various fishing regions in Iran in the early twentieth century. For the Safid River region from 1899-1900 to 1917-1918 the catch was 30 to 30,500 individuals with no fish reported in some years, and in Astrabad (= Gorgan) region from 1900-1901 to 1912-1913 the catch was 14,200 to 851,800 individuals. The commercial catch in Iran from 1956/1957 to 1961/1962 varied from 3443 kg to 175,295 kg (Vladykov, 1964), from 1965/66 to 1968/69 varied from 184 to 333 tonnes (Andersskog, 1970) and from 1963 to 1967 from 7.0 to 108.8 t (on a yearly basis 41.1, 9.8, 7.0, 108.8, and 48.1 t respectively) (RaLonde and Walczak, 1970b). Catches from 1933/34 to 1961/62 varied from 34 kg to 1113 t in the Bandar Anzali region and the total catch of the Northern Shilot (Fisheries Company) varied from 9.8 t to 333 t from 1963/64 to 1968/69 (RaLonde and Walczak, 1972). The Food and Agriculture Organization, Rome gave the catches from Iran for the 6 years 1980 to 1985 as 1032, 2000, 1000, 52, 83, and 100 t respectively. The catch in the Anzali Mordab in 1990 was 6855 kg and from 1932 to 1964 the annual catch varied from 1.2-638.6 t (Holčík and Oláh, 1992). These wide fluctuations in reporting and in nominal catches are indicative of the poor fisheries statistics as well as the inter-year variability of catches in Iran.
March and April are the main fishing months in Iran (Farid-Pak, no date). It is the main fish in Iranian carp farms, when raised in polyculture with Chinese carps (Jalali and Molnár, 1990b). Salehi (2004) gives a figure of 25% as the share of common carp in Iranian polyculture (63% being silver carp) and gives a review of the economics of carp polyculture. Kohnehchahry and Heydarpur (1973) outline methods of raising carp using submerged cages which they believe would be suitable for Iranian waters. There were about 4000 ha of carp fish ponds (which presumably included Chinese carps such as Hypophthalmichthys spp.) with an annual production of 2-3 tonnes/ha (White, 1988). Plans were made in the 1980s to increase total pond area (including trout which was at 60 ha and produced 1000 t/year) to 35,000 ha over 10 years to yield an annual harvest of 100,000 t/year. However Bartley and Rana (1998b) report an aquaculture production of 6561 tonnes in 1995 and Salehi (2004) gives 28,060 t from warm-water fish farming, mostly Chinese carps. More than 700,000 carp fingerlings were released in the small and remote province of Chahar Mahall va Bakhtiari alone and 20 million carp, silver carp and grass carp fingerlings were produced in the Shahid Rajaae Hatchery in Sari for release across Iran in reservoirs and dams (Abzeeyan, Tehran, 4(7):VII, 1993). Salehi (1999) states that the marketable size of cultured carp is 1 kg with most harvested once annually and almost 90% supplied to market in October-March with a peak in March (the Iranian New Year when fish is a traditional food).
Marjan Iran Company was selling 1500-1800 g fish for U.S.$1.90/kg in August 2003 compared to $2.10 for Ctenopharyngodon idella (http://groups.yahoo.com/groups/hilsa/message/25). In Golestan Province, carp cost 1500-1700 tomans/kg in the early 2000s. Salehi (2006a) analysed the consumer market for this species and its products in Iran.
An exotic species in some parts of the world, carp are a nuisance because they uproot vegetation used by native species for cover, food and spawning. This activity also increases water turbidity to levels which many native species cannot tolerate. Stirred up silt may smother eggs of native species. Carp also compete with other species for food and eat the eggs of other species.
Various studies have been carried out on its culture in Iran and neighbouring countries, e.g. see Freshwater Fishes of Iraq, and its use as an experimental organism, e.g. in Iran, see Arabi and Heydarnejad (2002) on the deleterious effects of copper and mercury, used in combating algal blooms and weeds, on the gills of carp; Dorafshan et al. (2003) on induction of spawning using pituitary extract and GnRH analogue in combination with domperidone; Sharifpour et al. (2003) on the anaesthetic effects of clove oil under various pH and temperature regimes; Abtahi et al. (2002) on clove oil having no significant difference with MS222, another anaesthetic used in fish farms; Vahabzadeh Roodsari et al. (2003) comparing malachite green and hydrogen peroxide to control fungal infections (the latter is effective and less dangerous); Akhlaghi et al. (2004) on phagocytosis in relation to immunostimulants; Ebrahimi (2004) on the deleterious effects of copper, a pollutant, on sperm anatomy; Moini and Basimy (2004) on production of fish cake according to various recipes and its shelf life; Sharifpour (2004) on the histology of the response and the circumstances of wound healing; Sharifpour et al. (2005) on the highly toxic effects of the pesticide endosulfan (with an LC50 of less than 0.1 mg/l); Yousefian (2005) on generating gynogenetic carp through irradiation; Baradaran Noveiri et al. (2006) on cryopreservation of spermatozoa using different extenders; Ghiasi and Mirzagar (2006) on lysozyme content in sub-lethal concentrations of cadmium; Kazemipour and Keivany (2006) on the use of garlic, mallow and motherwort in healing superficial wounds - garlic reduced recovery by one week; Kazemipour et al. (2006) on carp kept in aquaria at low concentrations of garlic (0.1 g/L) which healed superficial wounds more quickly than controls or aquaria having mallow or motherwort; Kohodabandeh and Abtahi (2006) on the use of sodium chloride, iodine and formalin to control Saprolegnia sp. on eggs (sodium chloride was recommended); Naji et al. (2007) on the 96h LC50 value of cobalt chloride at 327-328 mg/l; Naji et al. (2007) on the toxic effect of zinc sulphate on gill tissues which suffer hypertrophy and hyperplasia; etc.
This species is actively angled for along the Caspian shore of Iran and in its rivers (e.g. see Noorbakhsh (1993a)), appears regularly in fish markets of Ahvaz, Khuzestan and is caught by anglers there using bread or potato as bait.
It is characterised as a fatty fish according to a lipid content 9-14% by wet weight of muscle in autumn (Hantoush et al., 1999). Al-Aswad et al. (1980) detailed the chemical composition of this species in Dukan Lake, Iraq including seasonal levels of moisture, fat, protein and ash, and the various types of fatty acids and amino acids. Hindi et al. (1996a) give the chemical composition of flesh of this species as 78.87% moisture, 2.46% fat, 17.06% protein and 1.35% ash, indicating a valuable food fish characterised as lean to medium fatty. Hindi et al. (1996b) give chemical indices for assessing fish freshness according to the month of capture and marketing (pH 6.28, total volatile nitrogen bases 11.07 mg/N/100g fish, thiobarbituric acid 0.47 mg, and free fatty acids 0.62%).
The roe or eggs of this species have been implicated in poisoning (Halstead, 1967-1970; Coad, 1979b) and should be avoided (see under the genus Schizothorax for more information on egg poisoning). Fish should be carefully cleaned in the spawning season to remove the eggs and ensure against contamination of flesh. Severe cases of egg poisoning in other species have resulted in death.
Robins et al. (1991) list this species as important to North Americans. Importance is based on its use in aquaria and aquaculture, as food, in textbooks, for sport, as an experimental species and because it has been introduced outside its natural range. Brightly coloured varieties of carp are known as "koi" and are kept as ornamental fish. Colours include red, orange, white, black, blue and yellow in various combinations.
Conservation
Vladykov (1964) recommended that fishing for this species in Mazandaran and Gorgan be prohibited for 5 years because of reduced stocks. Krasznai (1987) and Petr (1987) give details of fish farms propagating this species in Iran. For example, 30 million fish were produced by the Safid Rud Fish Farm in 1986. In 1999-2000, 20 million juveniles were released into the Caspian Sea (Iranian Fisheries Research Organization Newsletter, 23:4, 2000). From October to March 2000, 3 million juveniles raised in the Shahid Ansari aquaculture and breeding centre in Gilan were released into the Caspian Sea and neighbouring water bodies (Iranian Fisheries Research Organization Newsletter, 26:2, 2001). Poaching was a problem in the Caspian basin of Iran (Razivi et al., 1972) and no doubt continues. The Atrak River stocks are an important fishery for both Iran and Turkmenistan but are susceptible to loss through the absence of flooding of the spawning grounds. Fish passes are needed to ensure access to the spawning grounds, timely release of water from a reservoir to flood the spawning areas in years of low water flow, enforcement of catch limits, and continued stocking (Petr, 1987).
Lelek (1987) considered that the wild form, as opposed to domestic stocks, was vulnerable to endangered in Europe because of habitat modifications. Kiabi et al. (1999) consider this species to be of least concern in the south Caspian Sea basin according to IUCN criteria. Criteria include commercial fishing, sport fishing, abundant in numbers, habitat destruction, widespread range (75% of water bodies), present in other water bodies in Iran, and present outside the Caspian Sea basin. Karami et al. (2005) found river fish had greater exposure to organophosphorus compounds than Caspian Sea and well-fed fish.
Further work
Where this species is introduced, its interactions with native species should be carefully studied and monitored in an effort to protect the native fauna.
Sources
A recent summary on this species is Bănărescu, Barus and Peňáz in Bănărescu and Paepke (2002).
Iranian material: CMNFI 1970-0510, 1, 47.8 mm standard length, Gilan, Golshan River (37º26'N, 49º40'E); CMNFI 1970-0522, 1, 108.5 mm standard length, Gilan, Safid River at Astaneh Bridge (37º16'30"N, 49º56'E); CMNFI 1970-0563, 3, 28.6-58.6 mm standard length, Gilan, Caspian Sea at Kazian Beach (ca. 37º29'N, ca. 49º29'E); CMNFI 1970-0568, 1, 125.8 mm standard length, Gilan, Caspian Sea at Kazian Beach (ca. 37º29'N, ca. 49º29'E); CMNFI 1970-0582, 3, 63.3- 134.0 mm standard length, Mazandaran, Aliabad Reservoir (36º56'N, 54º50'E); CMNFI 1970-0587, 2, 47.5-76.7 mm standard length, Mazandaran, Babol River at Babol Sar (36º43'N, 52º39'E); CMNFI 1979-0455, 6, 46.9-67.1 mm standard length, Markazi, Manjil Dam (36º45'N, 49º17'E); CMNFI 1979-0476, 3, 44.1-85.3 mm standard length, Mazandaran, Qareh Su near Kord Kuy (36º51'N, 54º05'E); CMNFI 1979-0479, 19, 28.0-143.8 mm standard length, Mazandaran, dam on Gorgan River (37º09'30"N, 54º41'30"E); CMNFI 1979-0685, 2, 31.5-45.7 mm standard length, Gilan, Safid River (ca. 37º22'N, ca. 49º57'E); CMNFI 1979-0788, 2, 104.2-123.5 mm standard length, Mazandaran, Gorgan River at Khadje Nafas (37º00'N, 54º07'E); CMNFI 1980-0128, 3, 60.2-75.2 mm standard length, Mazandaran, Qareh Su (36º49'30"N, 54º03'30"E); CMNFI 1980-0132, 4, 56.0-64.6 mm standard length, Gilan, Safid River at Kisom (37º12'N, 49º54'E); CMNFI 1980-0157, 1, 126.3 mm standard length, Mazandaran, Gorgan River estuary (36º59'N, 53º59'30"E); CMNFI 1980-0905, 2, 78.1-92.9 mm standard length, Mazandaran, Gorgan River at Khadje Nafas (37º00'N, 54º07'E); CMNFI 1980-0908, 1, 54.4 mm standard length, Gilan, Safid River estuary (ca. 37º28'N, ca. 49º54'E).
© Brian W. Coad (www.briancoad.com)