Book III
© Brian W. Coad (www.briancoad.com)
Book I = Introduction to Chanidae
Book II = Cyprinidae
Book III = Cobitidae to Marine Species
Book IV = Checklists to Bibliography
Cobitidae
This family of loaches, sometimes called sting-loaches, is found in Eurasia and Morocco and has about 26 genera
with about 177 species (Berra, 2001; Nelson, 2006). Berra (2001) does not indicate the more southern distribution of this genus in Khuzestan and Fars
provinces of Iran. Four species are recorded from Iran.
Anonymous (1988a) places Cobitidae on the Official List of Family-Group Names in Zoology (rather than the grammatically correct but unused Cobitididae) and Cobitis taenia is
designated as the type species for the genus Cobitis (see also Kottelat (1986) for further information).
The body form is fusiform to rounded or elongate; the mouth is subterminal and has 3-6 pairs of barbels; the mental lobes of the lower lip have two parts: the anterior which is usually
short and sometimes divided into lobules, and the posterior which is flap-like and longer and sometimes divided into 2 or more barbel-like
extensions; there is 1 row of pharyngeal teeth; and there is an erectile spine in a groove below the eye (anterior in a non-Iranian
genus). Iranian species have one pair of rostral barbels and a rounded or slightly emarginate caudal fin and belong to the subfamily
Cobitinae. Menon (1992) considers that structural details of the bony covering of the swimbladder and the nature of the scales are only of
use at the generic level. Lip structures, fin positions relative to one another and secondary sexual characteristics in males are
important characters in differentiating species in India. Economidis and Nalbant (1996) discuss characters used in the study of these
fishes and consider scales to be characteristic of each species along with colour pattern, sexual dimorphism, suborbital spine morphology,
barbel and mental lobe morphology, and others. Black spots at the caudal fin base and four longitudinal pigment zones on the flank (Z1-4 or Gambetta's zones
1-4) are important in distinguishing and describing species. Males have 1-2 laminar projections on the dorsal surface of the anterior pectoral fin rays
known as the laminae circularis or Canestrini's scales. Hybrid lineages are known, produced by gynogenesis and are nearly all-female. Males of bisexual
lineages are sperm donors but the sperm only induces egg development and contributes no genetic material. The all-female lineages are therefore sperm
parasites and have to occur in sympatry with one of the parental species in a hybrid complex. As a result, hybridogenous individuals in the complex are
difficult to distinguish from the bisexual parent species on external characters. An unbalanced sex ratio in a population with more females than males
is usually evidence that hybridogenous lineages are present (Kottelat and Freyhof, 2007). Maximum size is about 40 cm but most are much smaller.
The origins of this group of loaches may well lie at the end of the Eocene or in the early Oligocene in South China,
spreading along a northern route through Europe and Siberia during the Oligocene-Miocene-Pliocene period and then later southwards into
Southwest Asia (Sawada, 1982; Menon, 1987; 1992; Bănărescu and Nalbant, 1998; Šlechtová et al., 2008; Tang et al., 2008).
An early Oligocene route also existed between the Anatolian landmass and Central Asia (Tang et al., 2008) and cobitids may
have invaded the Euro-Mediterranean zoogeographic subregion at least five times independently based on cytochrome b data.
Some members of this family can live in oxygen-poor waters. They take in air at the surface, and pass it through the
intestine where the mucosa absorbs the oxygen and carbon dioxide waste is released through the vent. As a consequence, they may be very sensitive to air
pressure changes and become restless when it falls and can be used to predict the weather. Foods are mostly small insects, worms and
crustaceans detected by the aid of the barbels on the habitat bottom. Some eat algal films or mats. Most species bury themselves in sand or
mud during the day, emerging to feed at night. Movement is by undulations of the body, particularly marked in the more elongate
species. A consequence of this form of movement is a reduction in fin size and variation. Reproduction involves the male chasing the female, entering
vegetation and wrapping around the female as eggs are released and fertilised. Eggs swell and reach as large as 3.5 mm in diameter and as a result are retained
in the vegetation although they are not adhesive.
A number of species are popular aquarium fishes, including the coolie or kuhli loaches and the weatherfish. None of the Iranian fishes are used in this fashion but they can be quite
colourful. Cobitis taenia is a potential fishing bait for predatory fishes such as Sander lucioperca and has been examined experimentally for this purpose in Turkey
(Kuşat et al., 1995).
Genus Cobitis
Linnaeus, 1758
These fishes are found in Europe, North Africa and
Asia. There are 2 species in Iran. They are known generally as سگ ماهي (sag mahi
meaning dog fish) in Farsi, the equivalent of loach in English. This name is not
repeated under each species account. Also called لوچ (= louch in Farsi, from loach).
This genus is characterised by an elongate and
compressed body, a usually bifid, erectile spine below the eye
(sometimes hidden under the skin), 3 pairs of short barbels (4 at the
snout tip and 2 at the mouth corners), minute scales cover the body
(as many as 200 but they are seldom counted accurately), lateral line
faint or indistinct, dorsal and anal fins small, caudal fin rounded or
truncate, and swimbladder in a bony capsule with a free portion
visible. Males have bony extensions of their pectoral fin rays, known as lamina
circularis or scale of Canestrini, and no swellings of their body sides.
Polyploid unisexual, bisexual-unisexual complexes
and gynogenetic forms of Cobitis exist in the basins of the
Baltic, Black, Caspian and Mediterranean seas (Vasil'ev and Vasil'eva,
1996; Kottelat, 1997; Vasil'eva and Vasil'ev, 1998; Vasil'ev et al.,
1999; Bohlen, 2001). The species are morpohologically undifferentiated and therefore
require detailed study to resolve taxonomic and systematic problems.
The composition of Iranian species has not been investigated.
The earliest fossil record is from the middle Miocene about 15MYA with divergence of
Sabanejewia and Cobitis at 12-13MYA (Ludwig et al., 2001).
These loaches often bury themselves in mud to
overwinter or escape predators. The spine under the eye when erected
is an anti-predator device, discouraging swallowing by other fishes
and birds. The fish is said to actively swing the head from side to side to prick predators.
Cobitis linea
(Heckel, 1849)
Common names
sagmahi-ye jonubi (= southern dogfish).
[southern spined loach]
Systematics
The type locality of Acanthopsis linea is "Bäche um
Persepolis" according to Heckel (1846-1849b). Persepolis is at 29°57'N,
52°52'E in Fars.
The holotype described by Bănărescu
and Nalbant (1967) is one of 7 specimens assumed to be syntypes. The
catalogue in Vienna lists 1 specimen in one column and 6 in the
adjacent column. The type series is in poor condition being dried with
scales lost and colour mostly faded except for one specimen. Bianco
and Nalbant (1980) cite a specimen as the holotype, a female, 67.0 mm
standard length, housed in the Naturhistorisches Museum Wien (NMW
48560 - this includes all 7 fish) and the type locality as Persepolis,
presumably following Bănărescu
and Nalbant (1967). The dried specimens measure 41.2-62.9 mm standard
length and the undried one 61.3 mm standard length. My measurement is
at variance with these authors.
Placed in the subgenus Bicanestrinia Băcescu,
1962 by Bianco and Nalbant (1980) and originally described in the
genus Acanthopsis Agassiz, 1832 (see Eschmeyer (1990) for
further details on this genus). Bohlen et al. (2006) place this species
in their Bicanestrinia lineage I using the cytochrome b gene.
Bicanestrinia has a derived character state in the duplication of the
Canestrini scale or lamina circularis on the pectoral fin of males, the
primitive condition being a single lamina circularis as in, e.g. Cobitis
s.s. The separation between Bicanestrinia and Cobitis
s.s. occurred 12-17 MYA when the land connection between Central
Europe and Anatolia broke.
Material identified as Cobitis turcica (Hanko, 1924)
in Nalbant and Bianco (1998) is C. linea based on my examination of IZA 7829-30.
Fricke et al. (2007) have it in the Tor (sic, meaning Kor) River system of Iran, the same error.
Key characters
This species is distinguished by the dark brown lateral spots being
reduced or absent, males have 2 Canestrini's scales at the upper bases
of the unbranched and first branched pectoral fin rays, and the
laterocaudal branch of the suborbital spine is reduced or absent (although the
spine itself is detectable by touch in even the smallest fish).
Morphology
Dorsal fin unbranched rays 2 and branched rays 6-7, anal fin
unbranched rays 2-3 and branched rays 5, pectoral fin branched rays
7-9, and pelvic fin branched rays 5-6.
Meristic values for specimens examined by me are:- dorsal fin branched rays 6(16), anal fin branched rays 5(16), pectoral fin
branched rays 8(6), pelvic fin branched rays 6(6), and
total vertebrae 41(1).
Scales are embedded and have a reduced and eccentric focus. Johal et al.
(2006) and Esmaeili and Niknejad (2006-2007) give scanning electron micrographs of the scales. The
lateral line does not pass the end of the pectoral fin. The swimbladder capsule is globular but has ventral indentations
anterolaterally on both sides. There are small keels on the upper and
lower caudal peduncle. The anterior nostril is a short tube. The upper
lip has fine furrows, the lower lip is thick and folded with a pair of medial lobes.
Sexual dimorphism
Males have Canestrini's scales as detailed above.
Colour
Overall colour is a yellowish-white with a golden iridescence
especially on the operculum. Spots, blotches and dots are blue-grey or
brown. The flanks are variably spotted and striped, the variability
not related to sexual dimorphism. In some fish there is an upper flank,
uniform stripe closely following the line of the back, below it a
longitudinal series of irregular spots and blotches, a third stripe
incompletely developed, and a fourth mid-lateral stripe of spots and
blotches. In others the third and fourth stripes are an
indistinguishable row of speckles. The mid-line of the back has a row
of rounded spots numbering 7-11 (usually 8) predorsally, 0-3 (usually
2) at the dorsal fin base, and 5-11 (usually 8) postdorsally. The upper
head is covered with many minute dots, extending onto the snout and upper head
sides. The iris is golden-yellow.
There is a blackish band from the eye to the mouth corner. There is a
minute black spot on the caudal fin base. Fins are translucent. There are
numerous dots scattered on the rays and membranes of the dorsal and caudal fins
forming up to 9 irregular rows on the former and 8 more regular rows or bars on
the latter, but still not very clearly defined. Spots on the dorsal edge of the
caudal fin are clearly defined and regular; there are no spots on the ventral
edge. The pelvic and anal fins are immaculate while the pectoral fin has some
minor and irregular spots.
Size
Reaches 89.6 mm standard length.
Distribution
This species is found in the Kor River basin and the upper Kul River drainage
of the Hormozgan basin (Bănărescu and Nalbant, 1967; Bianco and Nalbant, 1980).
Zoogeography
This species may be related to Cobitis simplicispina Hankó, 1925 from
Anatolia and other nominal species, all placed in the subgenus Bicanestrinia
characterised by two Canestrini's scales. Members of this complex of
species possibly reached western Asia from eastern Asia in the early
Miocene. The disjunct distributions seen today were probably produced
by Pleistocene climatic changes (Bianco and Nalbant, 1980).
Habitat
This species favours muddy bottoms. Specimens were caught in about
5-6 cm of mud, or at the foot of a muddy bank, with aquatic vegetation
in the form of reeds.
Age and growth
Esmaeili and Ebrahimi (2006) give a significant length-weight relationship based
on 108 fish measuring 3.35-8.96 cm standard length. The a-value was
0.0089 and the b-value 3.060 (a b-value < 3 indicating a fish that
becomes less rotund as length increases and a b-value >3 indicating a
fish that becomes more rotund as length increases).
Food
Unknown.
Reproduction
Adult females described by Bianco and Nalbant (1980) measuring
80.0-88.6 mm standard length have ripe eggs 0.8-1.1 mm in diameter. A
specimen from the Lapui spring caught on 30 June carries eggs of this size.
Parasites and predators
Unknown.
Economic importance
This species is too small and rare to be of direct economic importance.
Conservation
Since this species is known only from a limited number of specimens, further
studies should be undertaken to ascertain its abundance and
distribution. It seems to favour muddy habitats and may have a
restricted distribution in the rocky streams of Fars on this account.
Further work
See above.
Sources
Type material: See above (NMW 48560).
Iranian material: CMNFI 1979-0292, 1, 69.8 mm standard length, Fars, Lapui Spring in the Kor River basin (29º48'N, 52º39'E);
IZA 7829, 4, 41.9-85.5 mm standard length, Fars, Pulvar River 15 km north of Persepolis (29º59'N, 52º59'E);
IZA 7830, 1, 27.1 mm standard length, Fars, springs of Kul River near Darab (no other locality data).
Cobitis taenia
Linnaeus, 1758
Common names
mahi roshtegar or roftegar (= dustman, cleaner or sweeper fish,
presumably from the bottom-dwelling habit); loch or louch in Khuzestan
(presumably from the English name, but also louch means a person with
a squint); gel khorak in Khuzestan; sagmahi-ye sangi (= stone loach), sagmahi-ye juibari or
sagmahi-e-jooibari, mar mahi (= snake fish).
[lakh mukhattat in Arabic; zagafgaziya iliskani in Azerbaijan;
shchipovka or shchipovka zakavkazskaya or Transcaucasian spiny loach
in Russian; spined or spiny loach, stone loach, spiny stone loach, weatherfish, spotted
weatherfish, Siberian loach].
Systematics
Cobitis Taenia was originally described from Lake Mälaren, Sweden (Kottelat, 1997).
Cobitis taenia satunini Gladkov, 1935 may be the subspecies
of the southern Caspian Sea basin distinguished by a truncate snout
rather than gradually tapering to the tip as in European spined
loaches as well as other characters listed by Gladkov (1935) including
head depth comprising 63.5% of head length on average and 12.27% of
standard length, and caudal peduncle shorter than the head (on average
16.27% of standard (?) length). However, it was described from western
Transcaucasia, outside the Caspian Sea basin, and material from the
Caspian coast of Iran has not been examined and compared with it. Berg
(1948-1949) referred specimens from the upper Kura River basin to this
subspecies but lacked material from the lower Kura, Lenkoran and the
southern Caspian Sea coast.
The holotype of Cobitis taenia satunini described from
"Kavkaz" and "nizov'ya r. Kintrish" (= lower
Kintrish stream in the Caucasus; the Kintrish stream mouth is at 41°48'N, 41°46'E)
is in the Zoological Museum of Moscow State University under MMSU
P.2852 with a cotype (= paratype) under MMSU P.2317 (Eschmeyer et
al. (1996) has MMSU P.2251, quoting Svetovidova (1978), which
disagrees with Gladkov (1935)). The Zoological Museum of Moscow University (ZMMU; their acronym) has P-2852 as the
holotype plus P-2313 as 2 paratypes (Pavlinov and Borissenko, 2001).
Key characters
Distinguished from other Cobitis and related taxa in northern Iran by having
modally 14 branched caudal fin rays, large dark and obvious spots
along the mid-flank, and above them speckles which tend to form a
stripe and above these a row of spots (absent in S. aurata).
Morphology
Dorsal fin unbranched rays 2-3, branched rays 6-8, anal fin
unbranched rays 2-3, branched rays 4-7, usually 5, pectoral fin
branched rays 5-9, and pelvic fin branched rays 5-7. Vertebrae 40-46,
in the south Caspian Sea 40. Some specimens are elongate while others
are deeper bodied. Chromosome number is 2n=48-50 (Klinkhardt et al.,
1995) but triploids and tetraploids are also known.
Meristics for Iranian specimens:- dorsal fin branched rays 6(29) or
7(51); anal fin branched rays 4(1), 5(78) or 7(1); pectoral fin
branched rays 6(4), 7(35), 8(38) or 9(3); pelvic fin branched rays
5(6), 6(70) or 7(4); caudal fin branched rays 10(1, but deformed),
12(2), 13(7), 14(68), 15(1) or 16(1); total vertebrae ?.
Sexual dimorphism
The second ray of the male pectoral fin is thickened and there is
an enlarged scale at the base (Canestrini scale). The body in front of
the dorsal fin of males is not distended as in S. aurata.
Colour
The back is light brown. The flanks are pale yellow with a series
of 10-20, usually 16-18, dark brown blotches or spots and the back bears a more or
less distinct series of 12-21 dark spots. A small stripe of brown
spots on the upper flank lies between the 2 series of dark spots. The
spaces between these stripes are finely speckled with brown. The belly
and lower head are yellowish white. The head is mottled with brown
dots and there is usually a band from the eye to the snout tip. The
head can have lime-green iridescent tints. Females have yellow-orange
dorsal and caudal fins bearing dark spots while in males these fins
are almost orange with dark spots. There is a distinctive dark spot or
two at the upper base of the caudal fin, often of a crescent shape,
although this spot may be absent occasionally. Dorsal and caudal fins have 3-4
rows of brown spots. The pectoral, pelvic
and anal fins are whitish without dark pigment. The iris is silvery,
slightly golden or orange.
Size
Reaches 15.0 cm.
Distribution
Found from England and the Iberian Peninsula across Eurasia to
Japan. However, Kottelat and Freyhof (2007) give a more restricted distribution
and exclude the Caspian Sea basin of Iran in their map. In the Caspian Sea basin of Iran, it is found from Astara to Gorgan
Bay including the Anzali Mordab and the Aras River, and from the upper Karkheh,
the middle Dez, Kashkan, Simarreh and lower Gav Masiab rivers in the Tigris basin
(Saadati, 1977; Roshan Tabari, 1997; Abbasi et al., 1999; Kiabi et al., 1999; Abdoli, 2000).
An anecdotal report from the Qareh Chai near Hamadan in the Namak Lake basin
needs specimens for confirmation.
Zoogeography
Records from the Tigris River basin of Iran are based on literature
(Saadati, 1977) and a single specimen (CMNFI 1979-0285). Mid-flank spots are less distinct than in C. taenia
from the Caspian Sea basin of Iran of similar size being smaller and
more numerous and the stripe on the centre of the back is continuous
rather than spots as in Caspian fish. Identification is tentative.
Cobitis taenia survived glaciations in at least three refuges in the
Ponto-Caspian area, one remaining near its Black Sea refuge. C. taenia
lineages may have a late Pleistocene origin (Culling et al., 2006).
Habitat
This species remains buried in sand, mud which is not too thick, or
dense weed growths during the day, being active at night, and is
mostly solitary. Swimming is by undulating motions over short
distances. When concealed, the body is bent into an arch so only the
head and tail protrude. It prefers cool, clear running waters.
Along the Caspian shore it is found in the lower reaches of rivers (Jolodar and
Abdoli, 2004).
Age and growth
This loach lives up to 5 years and is mature in its second year of life.
Food
Diet is small crustaceans such as ostracods, copepods and rotifers
in the bottom mud or sand. A mouthful of mud or sand is taken in,
chewed, food items extracted, and the residue expelled convulsively
through the gill openings.
Reproduction
Fecundity reaches 5072 eggs, perhaps as high as 10,000 (Palicka,
1996), and egg diameter reaches 1.58 mm. Spawning takes place from
April to June in slow to still water. Eggs are laid on sand, stones
and vegetation in several batches. Eggs may be deposited on the roots
of water plants cleared of debris by males rooting among them. Males
use their enlarged pectoral fins to turn the female during spawning.
Parasites and predators
This species is infected with Clinostomum complanatum, a
parasite that can cause laryngo-pharyngitis in humans, in the Shirud
of western Mazandaran Province (Shamsi et al., 1997).
Economic importance
Robins et al. (1991) list this species as important to North
Americans. Importance is based on its use in textbooks and in aquaria.
Palicka (1996) gives a short account of its aquarium care.
Conservation
Lelek (1987) classifies this species as rare in Europe. It was
commonly caught in Iranian streams along the Caspian coast. Kiabi et
al. (1999) consider this species to be of least concern in the
south Caspian Sea basin according to IUCN criteria. Criteria include
abundant in numbers, habitat destruction, widespread range (75% of
water bodies), present in other water bodies in Iran, and present
outside the Caspian Sea basin.
Further work
The biology of this species in Iranian waters has not been studied.
Sources
Iranian material:
Cobitis turcica
(Hanko, 1924)
Nalbant and Bianco (1998) record this species from the "River
Kor near Persepolis" but I identify this material as C. linea (q.v.).
The species was described originally from Eregli in Anatolian Turkey and its presence in Iran needs
confirmation. Erkakan et al. (1999) review the Turkish species of Cobitis
but do not mention the occurrence of C. turcica in Iran.
Misgurnus
Lacepède, 1803
Misgurnus anguillicaudatus
(Cantor, 1842)
Recorded from the Karakum Canal and Kopetdag Reservoir of
Turkmenistan by Shakirova and Sukhanova (1994) and Sal'nikov (1995),
this exotic species from China may eventually reach the Tedzhen River
and Caspian Sea basins of Iran. No Iranian record.
Sabanejewia
Vladykov, 1929
Sabanejewia is distinguished from Cobitis
Linnaeus, 1758 by having 12 rather than 14 branched caudal fin rays, a
stronger suborbital spine, developed mental lobes which may be
unfringed or well fringed, large imbricated or unimbricated scales
with a relatively large and central focus, and males have a
protuberance on each side of the body in front of the dorsal and
pelvic fins and lack the lamina circularis (a bony process at
the base of the second pectoral fin ray)(see Vladykov (1929), Nalbant
(1963, 1994), Sawada (1982), Vasil'yeva (1995b) and Perdices and
Doadrio (1997, 2001) for further details). Krupp (1985c) does not consider Sabanejewia
to be a distinct genus. Perdices et al. ((2003) using mtDNA demonstrate
that Caucasian-Caspian lineages are the sister group of a Danubian-Balkan lineage.
Tang et al. (2008) using the cytochrome b gene found that
ancestral Sabanejewia might have been the first cobitids to cross Siberia
and invade the Euro-Mediterranean zoogeographic subregion.
Sabanejewia aurata
(De Filippi, 1863)
Further illustrations
Sabaneajewia aurata; Sabaneajewia aurata; both after Berg (1948-1949)
Common names
sagmahi-ye khardar (= spiny loach), sagmahi-e-jooibari.
[gizili iliskan in Azerbaijan; opi-dzug in Armenia;
peredneaziatskaya shchipovka or Hither Asia spined loach, zolotistaya
shchipovka or golden spined (spiny) loach, both in Russian].
Systematics
Kottelat (1997) tentatively considers that this species is restricted
to Iran and possibly adjacent waters and does not occur in Europe.
The lectotype of Cobitis aurata (MZUT N.674), designated by
Tortonese (1961), is stored in the Istituto e Museo di Zoologia della
R. Università di Torino and 2 paralectotypes (MSNG N.365) from the
Collezione di Universitá di Genova are in the Museo Civico di Storia
Naturale di Genova (Tortonese, 1940; Tortonese, 1961). Eschmeyer et
al. (1996) give the paralectotypes' catalogue number as ?MSNG
42727 (ex Univ. Genoa 365).
The type locality is "un fiumicello presso Sartschem" (De
Filippi, 1863; not 1865 as in Berg (1948-1949), Banarescu and Nalbant
(1964) and Reshetnikov et al. (1997) and not 1862 as in
Tortonese (1940) and Eschmeyer et al. (1996)). The type
locality is possibly Sarcham-e Sofla (37°07'N, 47°54'E)
in the Qezel Owzan River drainage of the Caspian Sea basin in Iran.
Cobitis Hohenackeri Brandt in Kessler, 1877 from the Kura
River basin of Transcaucasia (Azerbaijan) is a synonym with 6 syntypes
in the Zoological Institute, St. Petersburg (ZISP).
Key characters
Distinguished from other cobitids in northern Iran by having
modally 12 branched caudal fin rays, large dark spots along the flank,
and above them speckles which do not tend to form a stripe.
Morphology
Dorsal fin unbranched rays 2-3, branched rays 5-8, predominately 6
in the Caspian basin, anal fin unbranched rays 2-3, branched rays 4-8,
usually 5, pectoral fin branched rays 5-9, predominately 7 in the
Caspian basin (but see below), pelvic fin branched rays
4-8, usually 5 (but see below), and vertebrae 39-43.
Meristics for Iranian specimens:- ? check dorsal rays on x-rays, dorsal
fin branched rays 6(11) or 7(4); anal fin branched rays 5(15);
pectoral fin branched rays 7(1) or 8(14); pelvic fin branched rays
5(1) or 6(14); caudal fin branched rays 11(2) or 12(13); and total vertebrae ?.
Scales minute but visible to the naked eye, ca. 170-200. Dermal
crest or adipose fins are variably developed behind the dorsal and
anal fins. Barbels are longer than in C. taenia, the mouth
corner barbels reaching back to the posterior eye margin. Karyotype is
2n=50 (Klinkhardt et al., 1995).
Sexual dimorphism
The second pectoral fin ray in males is not enlarged as in C.
taenia but there is a lateral distension of the body in front of
the dorsal fin in mature males.
Colour
The back is a brownish olive-green with darker marbling. The flanks
are golden-brown with a row of dark brown spots, less conspicuous than
those in C. taenia. These number 9-18, modally 11-13, in the
Caspian basin. The upper row of spots is absent in contrast to C.
taenia. The number of spots may be related to habitat, those fish
from calm waters having few large spots. The back has several dark
blotches along its mid-line. In the Caspian basin there are 7-16 back
blotches, modally 9-10. There is a bar at the caudal base, sometimes
with a small central gap. Fins are slightly pink.
Size
Attains 13.8 cm, but most fish are less than 10.0 cm.
Distribution
Found in the basins of the Baltic, Aegean, Black and Caspian seas
and in the Tedzhen and Murgab rivers of Afghanistan and Turkmenistan
according to most authors (Aliev et al., 1988; Nalbant and
Bianco, 1998). A distinct subspecies is found in the Aral Sea basin
(see below). Kottelat (1997) however considers that this species is
restricted to Iran and possibly adjacent waters. It is found along the Caspian
Sea coast of Iran including the Anzali Mordab and Safid River and in the Kashaf
River of the Tedzhen River basin (Holčik and Oláh, 1992; Abbasi et al., 1999; Abdoli, 2000;
Jolodar and Abdoli, 2004).
The record of this species in the Tigris-Euphrates basin at Basrah,
Iraq (BM(NH) 1920.3.5:9) in Nalbant (1963) and Bănărescu
and Nalbant (1967), and repeated in Banister (1980), is probably an
error of labelling (Bănărescu, 1973).
Zoogeography
The subspecies, Cobitis aurata aralensis Kessler, 1877, is
reported from the Karakum Canal and the Uzboi lakes in Turkmenistan by
Shakirova and Sukhanova (1994) and Sal'nikov (1995) and may well enter
both the Tedzhen River and Caspian Sea basins of Iran eventually.
Habitat
This is a nocturnal species, hiding during the day under gravel and
boulders of flowing rivers. If exposed, it will make jerking motions
to the nearest cover. Some authors state that it also hides in sand.
It prefers shallow and clear water. It occurs with C. taenia
but is commoner in faster water in the upper and middle reaches of
rivers, from 5 to 150 cm water depth. However it may form populations
in still water left behind after floods.
Age and growth
Males tend to be slightly smaller than females.
Food
Bottom-dwelling invertebrates are the main food items including
larval insects such as mayflies, dragonflies and caddisflies as well
as nematodes, copepods, chironomids, fish eggs, algae and detritus.
Reproduction
Fecundity reaches 14,700 eggs and egg diameter 0.85 mm. Eggs are
shed over plants from April to August and this species may spawn in batches.
Parasites and predators
Unknown.
Economic importance
None.
Conservation
Lelek (1987) lists this species as rare to vulnerable in Europe.
Kiabi et al. (1999) consider this species to be conservation
dependent in the south Caspian Sea basin according to IUCN criteria.
Criteria include few in numbers, habitat destruction, limited range
(less than 25% of water bodies), absent in other water bodies in Iran,
and present outside the Caspian Sea basin. The 2000 IUCN Red List
lists this species as DD (Data Deficient).
Further work
The biology of this species in Iran has not been examined and its systematics needs clarification.
Sources
Vasil'eva and Vasil'ev (1988) give details on variation in meristics and colour of this species.
Iranian material: ?
Sabanejewia caucasica
(Berg, 1906)
Reported from the Anzali Mordab and lower reaches of the Safid, Toenkabon,
Chalus, Heraz and Babol rivers in Iran (Abdoli, 2000) and mapped from teh
Caspian coast of Iran by Kottelat and Freyhof (2007). Berg (1948-1949) notes that this species
is found in the northern Transcaucasus and is not reported from the
Kura River in the southwestern corner of the Caspian Sea. Its presence
in Iran needs confirmation by specimens. Formerly in the genus Cobitis.
Sabanejewia caspia
(Eichwald, 1838)
Further illustrations
Sabanejewia caspia; Sabanejewia caspia and suborbital spine; Sabanejewia caspia; all after Berg (1948-1949)
Common names
mahi roshtegar talaee (= golden dustman fish), rofteghar mahi, sagmahi-ye Khazari (= Caspian loach), sag mahi khardar (= spiny loach), mar mahi (= snake fish), sagmahi-e-jooibari.
[xazar iliskani in Azerbaijan; Kaspiiskaya shchipovka or Caspian spined (spiny) loach in Russian].
Systematics
This species was described from "in sinu mardofiensi prope castellum Lencoranicum" (i.e. the Caspian Sea in the ?
Mardofiensi Gulf near the Lenkoran fortress). The type specimen is apparently lost (Vasil'yeva, 1995b).
Key characters
Distinguished from other cobitids in northern Iran by having modally 12 branched caudal fin rays, no large dark spots along the
flank but a stripe, and above this stripe speckles which do not tend to form a stripe.
Morphology
Dorsal fin unbranched rays 2-3, branched rays 6-7, anal fin unbranched rays 1-2, branched rays 5-6, pectoral fin branched rays 6-7
(but see below) and pelvic fin branched rays 4-6. Vertebrae 41-42. A crest is well developed on the lower caudal peduncle but only posteriorly on the
upper edge. Barbels are shorter than in C. taenia, the posterior ones reaching beyond the posterior eye margin. Karyotype is
2n=50 (Klinkhardt et al., 1995).
Meristics for Iranian specimens:- dorsal fin branched rays 6(83) or 7(1); anal fin branched rays 5(80) or 6(4); pectoral fin branched rays
7(6), 8(72) or 9(6); pelvic fin branched rays 4(3), 5(67) or 6(14); caudal fin branched rays 7(1, but deformed), 9(1), 10(3), 11(4),
12(74) or 13(1); total vertebrae ?.
Sexual dimorphism
The second pectoral fin ray in males is not enlarged as in C. taenia but there is a lateral distension of the body in front of the dorsal fin an mature males.
Colour
Live specimens, especially young, are almost transparent. The adult has a pronounced dark line along mid-flank indicating the separation
of the upper and lower muscle masses. Above this line the upper flank is yellowish with irregular dark grey pigment or brown speckles near
the back. The lower flank has irregular grey pigment or brown speckles. The mid-line of the back has a more or less pronounced dark
line. The belly and lower head surface are pale yellowish without grey pigment. The dorsal and caudal fins have yellow-orange rays bearing
3-4 series of dark grey spots. The base of the caudal fin has 2 dark dots although these are not as marked as in Cobitis taenia. The
pectoral, pelvic and anal fins are transparent though larger fish may have elongate grey spots along the rays. The iris is golden.
Note that Vasil'yeva (1995b), based on original data and that of Derzhavin (1934), found that the dark longitudinal band and the dark
caudal fin base may not be pronounced.
Size
Reaches 9.2 cm standard length.
Distribution
Principally found in the southern Caspian Sea basin. Records from the northern Caspian Sea are apparently in error and the range is from the
Kura to the Babol rivers including the Anzali Mordab (Holčik and Oláh, 1992; Vasil'yeva, 1995b; Abbasi et al., 1999; Abdoli, 2000; Jolodar and Abdoli, 2004).
Zoogeography
This species is endemic to the Caspian Sea basin (Nalbant and Bianco, 1998).
Habitat
This species is found in both fresh and brackish waters, in slow or still water with aquatic vegetation, in the lower reaches of rivers
and near river mouths, and in brackish bays.
Age and growth
Unnown.
Food
Unknown.
Reproduction
Spawning takes place in April in the brackish lagoons of the Lenkoran, Azerbaijan. Up to 955 eggs of up to 0.85 mm diameter are carried by each female.
Parasites and predators
None reported for Iran.
Economic importance
None.
Conservation
Holčík and Oláh (1992) report the loss of this species from the Anzali Mordab where it was once found. Reasons for this loss are unknown.
Kiabi et al. (1999) consider this species to be conservation dependent in the south Caspian Sea basin according to IUCN criteria.
Criteria include possibly few in numbers, habitat destruction, limited range (less than 25% of water bodies), absent in other water bodies in
Iran, and absent outside the Caspian Sea basin. Vulnerable in Turkey (Fricke et al., 2007).
Further work
The biology of this species in Iran requires study.
Sources
Iranian material: ?
Balitoridae
paracobitis, barbatula, schistura, triplophysa genus descriptions
Materials to ID and add to Sources
Nemacheilus sp.
CMNFI 1970-0521, 1, ?, mm standard length, Gilan, Safid River near Lulaman (no other locality data) ?bergiana;
CMNFI 1970-0545, 2, 34.7-35.6 mm standard length, Gilan, Safid River from Emamzadeh Hashem to Lulaman (ca. 37º01'N, ca. 49º38'E) ?bergiana;
CMNFI 1970-0540, 1, 49.5 mm stanmdard length, ?;
CMNFI 1970-0558, 4, ?mm standard length, Ghasemlou Chay ()?brandtii;
CMNFI 1970-0559, 3, ?, mm standard length, Azarbaijan-e Bakhtari, Barunduz Chay (ca. 37º25'N, ca. 45º10'E);
CMNFI 1970-0560, 3, ?, mm standard length, Azarbaijan-e Bakhtari, Mamiyand Chay near Mamiyand (ca. 36º59'N, ca. 45º39'E);
CMNFI 1971-0341, 13, 28.6-44.3 mm standard length, ? ;
CMNFI 1979-0026, 8, 22.8-46.6 mm standard length, Fars, Shapur River at Shapur (29º47'N, 51º35'E);
CMNFI 1979-0027, 9, 31.0-41.3 mm standard length, Fars, Chehel Chashmeh (ca. 29º43'N, ca. 52º04'E);
CMNFI 1979-0028, 5, 48.3-55.6 mm standard length, Fars, ?;
CMNFI 1979-0059, 28, 32.8-57.0 mm standard length, Fars, Pulvar River 8 km south of Sivand (30º01'30"N, 52º57'E)?distinct taxonand se other fars fish;
CMNFI 1979-0061, 3, 50.2-63.7 mm standard length, Fars, stream tributary to Pulvar River (30º04'N, 53º01'E);
CMNFI 1979-0067, 1, 55.8 mm standard length, Fars, qanat at Zarqan (ca. 29º46'N, ca. 52º43'E);
CMNFI 1979-0070, 2, 38.8-39.9 mm standard length, Fars, Pulvar River at Naqsh-e Rostam (29º59'N, 52º54'E);
CMNFI 1979-0073, 10, 31.1-56.1 mm standard length, Fars, Mand River (ca. 29º42'30"N, ca. 52º01'30"E);
CMNFI 1979-0111, 5, 43.2-52.7 mm standard length, Fars, stream on Shiraz to Bushehr road (29º37'30"N, 52º21'E);
CMNFI 1979-0117, 2, 42.1-50.6 mm standard length, Fars, Pulvar River on road to Naqsh-e Rostam (29º59'N, 52º54'E);
CMNFI 1979-0155, 2, 30.7-30.9 mm standard length, Fars, spring at Gavanoo (28º47'N, 54º22'E);
CMNFI 1979-0157, 3, 34.8-37.7 mm standard length, Fars, qanat at Hadiabad (28º52'N, 54º13'E);
CMNFI 1979-0167, 41, 20.6-48.3 mm standard length, Kerman, qanat at Bam (29º06'N, 58º20'E);
CMNFI 1979-0168, 1, 47.2 mm standard length, Kerman, qanat at Shahabad (29º07'N, 58º16'E);
CMNFI 1979-0169, 11, ? mm standard length, Kerman, qanat 10 km from Mahan (30º08'30"N, 57º17'E);
CMNFI 1979-0170, 1, 45.0 mm standard length, Kerman, qanat at Baghin (30º12'N, 56º48'E);
CMNFI 1979-0172, 18, 33.8-45.8 mm standard length, Kerman, qanat on Kerman to Bandar Abbas road (29º51'N, 56º14'E);
CMNFI 1979-0184, 2, 27.7-28.4 mm satndard length, ?;
CMNFI 1979-0186, 2, ? mm standard length, Hormozgan, stream at Sar Khun (ca. 27º24'30"N, ca. 56º25'E);
CMNFI 1979-0192, 7, ? mm standard length, Fars, qanat 2 km east of Rostaq (28º26'30"N, 55º04'E);
CMNFI 1979-0193, 1, ? mm standard length, Fars, river 8 km from Darab (28º45'N, 54º27'30"E);
CMNFI 1979-0194, 2, 37.6-45.6 mm standard length, Fars, jube 15 km from Darab (28º45'30"N, 54º24'E);
CMNFI 1979-0206, 3, 24.9-36.1 mm standard length, Fars, qanat 1 km from Runiz-e Pa'in (29º12'N, 53º40'E);
CMNFI 1979-0208, 15, 31.1-58.8 mm standard length, Fars, qanat on road to Qatru (ca. 29º11'N, ca. 54º40'E);
CMNFI 1979-0213, 7, ? mm standard length, Kerman, stream in Kharan River drainage (29º15'N, 56º25'E);
CMNFI 1979-0219, 13, ? mm standard length, Kerman, jube 14 km west of Jiroft (28º37'N, 57º41'E);
CMNFI 1979-0253, 7, 31.2-49.5 mm standard length, Markazi, Qareh Chay west of Baqerabad (34º52'N, 50º49'E);
CMNFI 1979-0276, 14, 36.3-45.8 mm standard length, Lorestan, Chamesk River (ca. 33º19'N, ca. 47º53'30"E);
CMNFI 1979-0284, 3, 38.7-41.9 mm standard length, Kermanshahan, Marek River at Mahidasht (34º16'N, 46º48'30"E);
CMNFI 1979-0288, 1, 32.4 mm standard length, Ilam and Poshtkuh, Gangir River at Juy-e Zar Eivan (33º50'N, 46º18'E);
CMNFI 1979-0292, 8, 29.0-45.6 mm standard length, Fars, Lapu'i spring (29º48'N, 52º39'E) ?distinct taxon;
CMNFI 1979-0306, 11, 20.0-49.3 mm standard length, Kerman, qanat 33 km from Sirjan (29º13'N, 54º33'E);
CMNFI 1979-0307, 4, 31.0-42.3 mm standard length, Kerman, river at Sartal (ca. 29º17'N, ca. 56º38'E)? distinct species;
CMNFI 1979-0316, 1, ? mm standard length, Baluchestan, stream on road to Chah Bahar (26º48'N, 61º02'E);
CMNFI 1979-0341, 10, 25.5-45.6 mm standard length, Kerman, Tahrud west of Bam (29º23'N, 57º52'E);
CMNFI 1979-0365, 7, 32.0-40.5 mm standard length, Khuzestan, stream in Doveyrich drainage (32º25"N, 47º36'30"E);
CMNFI 1979-0366, 1, 36.0 mm standard length, Khuzestan, stream 17 km west of Dehloran (32º45'30"N, 47º05'30"E);
CMNFI 1979-0367, 1, 41.3 mm standard length, Khuzestan, Meymeh River 11 km north of Dehloran (32º44'30"N, 47º09'30"E);
CMNFI 1979-0371, 2, 44.5-55.6 mm standard length, Khuzestan, stream in Karkheh River drainage (32º05'N, 48º19'E);
CMNFI 1979-0374, 2, 41.3-41.7 mm standard length, Khuzestan, stream tributary to Bala River (32º40'N, 48º15'E);
CMNFI 1979-0389, 1, 32.4 mm standard length, Khuzestan, Zard River 1 km south of Bagh-e Malek (31º31'N, 49º53'30"E);
CMNFI 1979-0390B, 3, 29.1-39.4 mm standard length, Khuzestan, stream 3km south of Bagh-e Malek (31º29'N, 49º54'30"E);
CMNFI 1979-0395, 1, 30.7 mm standard length, Khuzestan, stream in Marun River drainage (ca. 30º57'N, ca. 49º51'E);
CMNFI 1979-0399, 1, 26.2 mm standard length, Fars, stream near Basht (30º19'30"N, 51º15'E);
CMNFI 1979-0411, 3, 21.9-25.9 mm standard length, Hormozgan, Minab River near Rudan (27º24'N, 57º12'E)?cf bampurensis;
CMNFI 1979-0419, 19, 32.4-58.7 mm standard length, Fars, stream 7 km from Rostaq (28º29'N, 55º01'E);
CMNFI 1979-0423, 4, 43.2-45.7 mm standard length, Boyer Ahmadi-ye Sardsir va Kohkiluyeh-Fars border, river in Beshar River drainage (30º31'N, 51º31'E);
CMNFI 1979-0447, 2, 51.2-59.8 mm standard length, Gilan, stream 7 km east of Namin (38º23'N, 48º28'E);
CMNFI 1979-0448, 9, 31.1-62.0 mm standard length, Azarbayjan-e Khavari, Ahar Chay 8 km from Ardebil (38º18'30N, 48º22'E);
CMNFI 1979-0450, 3, 38.7-40.9 mm standard length, Azarbayjan-e Khavari, stream near Kivi (ca. 37º37'N, ca. 48º17'E);
CMNFI 1979-0452, 2, 42.1-42.8 mm standard length, Azarbayjan-e Khavari, Qezel Owzan River 6 km from Mianeh (37º23'N, 47º45'E);
CMNFI 1979-0453, 1, 34.2 mm standard length, Zanjan, Zanjan River (37º06'N, 47º56'E);
CMNFI 1979-0458, 1, 48.2 mm standard length, Markazi, Khar River 6 km north of Ab-Garm (35º47'N, 49º20'E);
CMNFI 1979-0459, 4, ? mm standard length, Hamadan, stream 2 km south of Kazan (35º22'N, 49º02'E);
CMNFI 1979-0462, 4, 32.0-45.6 mm standard length, Markazi, Mazdaqan River (35º06'30"N, 49º40'30"E);
CMNFI 1979-0463, 2, 41.0-51.6 mm standard length, Markazi, Qareh Chay (34º53'N, 50º26'E);
CMNFI 1979-0465, 1, 37.1 mm standard length, Markazi, Qom River at Neizar (34º18'30"N, 50º32'E);
CMNFI 1991-0155, 1, 41.7 mm standard length, Hamadan, Gav Masiab River (34º12'N, 48º20'E);
CMNFI 1991-0156, 1, ? mm standard length, Hamadan, Gav Masiab River (34º16'N, 48º10'E);
CMNFI 1993-0125, 1, 47.8 mm standard length, Kermanshahan, Sarab-e Nilufar (34º24'N, 46º52'E);
CMNFI 1993-0128, 1, 58.3 mm standard length, Kermanshahan, Sarab-e Sabz 'Ali Khan (34º25'N, 46º32'E) ?kermanshahensis q.v.;
CMNFI 2007-0021, 11, 25.5-34.6 mm standard length, ?;
CMNFI 2007-0037, 5, 45.2-54.9 mm standard length, Kerman, Hosseinabad and Gamatabad qanats at Bam (29º06'N, 58º21'E);
CMNFI 2007-0038, 1, 39.0 mm standard length, Kerman, Mehtiabad qanat at Bam (29º06'N, 58º21'E);
CMNFI 2007-0039, 6, 32.4-41.7 mm standard length, Kerman, Tahrud River (ca. 29º23'N, ca. 57º63'E);
CMNFI 2007-0043, 9, 33.0-56.7 mm standard length, Kerman, qanat at Emamzadeh Sultan (ca. 29º40'N, ca. 56º45'E);
CMNFI 2007-0047, 2, 36.8-58.2 mm standard length, Kerman, qanat at Hoshum (29º14'N, 56º19'E);
CMNFI 2007-0051, 5, 28.6-36.3 mm standard length, Hormozgan, upper Kol River basin (28º19'N, 55º55'E);
CMNFI 2007-0055, 3, 36.1-40.3 mm standard length, Hormozgan, stream in Minab River basin (27º47'N, 57º12'E);
CMNFI 2007-0074, 10, 25.6-50.8 mm standard length, Markazi, Qareh Su 32 km west of Arak (34º03'N, 49º21'E);
CMNFI 2007-0075, 6, 41.3-47.9 mm standard length, Hamadan, Malayer River 5 km from Malayer (ca. 34º17'N, ca. 48º47'E);
CMNFI 2007-0081, 10, ? mm standard length, Zanjan, Zanjan River basin near Soltaniyeh (ca. 36º27'N, ca. 48º45'E);
CMNFI 2007-0082, 7, ? mm standard length, Zanjan, Zanjan River basin near Zanjan (ca. 36º36'N, ca. 48º32'E);
CMNFI 2007-0083, 2, ? mm standard length, Azarbayjan-e Khavari, Qaranqu River basin west of Sar Eskand Khan (ca. 37º25'N, ca. 46º55'E);
CMNFI 2007-0084, 2, ? mm standard length, Azarbayjan-e Khavari, Talkheh River basin west of Sarab (ca. 37º56'N, ca. 47º19'E);
CMNFI 2007-0085, 12, ? mm standard length, Azarbayjan-e Khavari, Talkheh River basin east of Sarab (ca. 37º56'N, ca. 47º41'E);
CMNFI 2007-0086, 3, ? mm standard length, Azarbayjan-e Khavari, Qareh Su basin near Nir (ca. 38º02'N, ca. 48º00'E);
CMNFI 2007-0089, 7, ? mm standard length, Azarbayjan-e Khavari, Ahar Chay at Ahar (38º28'N, 47º03'E);
CMNFI 2007-0091, 13, ? mm standard length, Azarbayjan-e Khavari, Zilber Chay west of Marand (38º30'N, 45º23'E);
CMNFI 2007-0093, 8, ? mm standard length, Azarbayjan-e Bakhtari, Qotur River south of Khvoy (38º30'N, 44º58'E);
CMNFI 2007-0095, 2, ? mm standard length, Azarbayjan-e Bakhtari, Shahr Chay southwest of Reza'iyeh (ca. 37º27'N, ca. 44º56'E);
CMNFI 2007-0096, 6, ? mm standard length, Azarbayjan-e Bakhtari, Qasemul River south of Reza'iyeh (ca. 37º25'N, ca. 45º10'E);
CMNFI 2007-0097, 4, ? mm standard length, Azarbayjan-e Bakhtari, Baranduz Chay basin south of Reza'iyeh (ca. 37º16'N, ca. 45º08'E);
CMNFI 2007-0099, 9, 24.6-43.8 mm standard length, Azarbayjan-e Bakhtari, Kalwi Chay west of Mahabad (ca. 36º35'N, ca. 45º25'E);
CMNFI 2007-0100, 4, 44.2-58.4 mm standard length, Azarbayjan-e Bakhtari, Kalwi Chay near Piranshahr (ca. 36º44'N, ca. 45º10'E);
CMNFI 2007-0103, 3, ? mm standard length, Kordestan, Zarineh River basin north of Saqqez (36º18'N, ca. 46º16'E);
CMNFI 2007-0105, 13, ? mm standard length, Kordestan, Zarineh River basin south of Saqqez (ca. 36º06'N, ca. 46º20'E);
CMNFI 2007-0106, 17, ? mm standard length, Kordestan, Qezel Owzan River basin near Divandarreh (ca. 35º52'N, ca. 47º05'E);
CMNFI 2007-0107, 8, ? mm standard length, Kordestan, Qezel Owzan River basin near Bijar (ca. 35º54'N, ca. 47º20'E);
CMNFI 2007-0115, 1, 41.5 mm standard length, Kermanshahan, Qareh Su basin (ca. 34º34'N, ca. 46º47'E);
CMNFI 2007-0115, 2, 49.7-54.7 mm standard length, Kermanshahan, Qareh Su basin (ca. 34º34'N, ca. 46º47'E);
CMNFI 2007-0116, 2, 40.6-44.8 mm standard length, Kermanshahan, Gav Masiab River basin west of Sahneh (ca. 34º28;'N, ca. 47º36'E);
CMNFI 2007-0118, 15, 24.7-58.8 mm standard length, Kermanshahan, Bid Sorkh River between Sahneh and Kangavar (ca. 34º23'N, ca. 47º52'E);
CMNFI 2007-0119, 8, 26.9-37.9 mm standard length, Kermanshahan, Gav Masiab River basin near Kangavar (ca. 34º31'N, ca. 48º03'E);
CMNFI 2007-0121, 6, 32.0-54.1 mm standard length, Hamadan, Qareh Su basin north of Razan (ca. 35º25'N, ca. 49º02'E);
BWC 1995-0002, 1, 41.6 mm standard length, ?;
BWC 1995-0017, 3, 48.4-51.2 mm standard length, ?;
BWC 1995-0020,
BWC 1995-0030, 1, 22.8 mm standard length, ?;
BWC 1997-0005,
BWC 2000-0001,
BWC 2000-0002,
BWC 2000-0004,
BWC 2000-0008,
BWC 2000-0011,
BWC 2000-0016,
BM(NH) 1899.9.30:138-140, 4, 41.8-53.4 mm standard length, ?, Ula on the Zola Chai
BM(NH) 1899.9.30:131-137, 7 (4 examined), 33.3-35.8 mm standard length, ?, Elinja Chai
The hillstream, mountain or river loach family has had various family names - see Menon (1987), Mirza (1989b), Hieronimus (1990; 1991), Ng and Lim (1991), Kottelat (1988, 1991), Nelson (1991),
Thorne (1992), Anonymous (1993a) and Bănărescu and Nalbant (1995) for discussions. The Iranian species were classified in Cobitidae in older works and more recently in Homalopteridae. Mirza (1989b),
Nalbant (1998), Tang et al. (2006) and Šlechtová et al. (2007) consider that the correct name for this family is Noemacheilidae (in Mirza) or Nemacheilidae, but this is
not widely used in the literature as yet. Nemacheilids are aligned with the main stem of cobitoid fishes rather than homalopterids as proposed by Sawada (1982) on osteological grounds.
Nalbant (1998) considers the similarities observed by Sawada between nemacheilids and homalopterids to be homoplasies. Homalopterids are more closely related to cyprinids and psilorhynchids.
The family is found throughout Eurasia with a single species in northeast Africa. There are about 60 genera and about 590 species (Berra, 2001; Nelson, 2006), with more being described regularly.
Iranian species belong to the subfamily Nemacheilinae.
Most species in Iran were placed in the genus Nemacheilus Bleeker, 1863 but this name contains only species from Southeast Asia (Kottelat, 1997). Noemacheilus Kuhl and van Hasselt in
van Hasselt, 1823 is a nomen nudum since there are no taxonomic characters accompanying the original description. The next available name is Nemacheilus Bleeker, 1863 (see Kottelat, 1987).
Nemachilus Günther, 1868 is an incorrect spelling. Much of the earlier literature on Iranian members can be found under the name Nemacheilus or its variant spellings.
These loaches have been placed in several genera or subgenera including the following relevant to Iran: Orthrias Jordan and Fowler, 1903 (see Banarescu, Nalbant and Balik (1978); Orthrias
= Barbatula Linck, 1790 of authors, see Bănărescu and Nalbant (1995) for reasons advocating the later name over the earlier one; Kottelat (1997) gives Linck as 1789), Adiposia
Annandale and Hora, 1920 (see Annandale and Hora (1920); see also Bănărescu and Nalbant (1995) where it is synonymised with Paracobitis), Triplophysa Rendahl, 1933 and
Hedinichthys Rendahl, 1933 (see Bănărescu and Nalbant (1967); see also Bănărescu and Nalbant (1995) where the latter is synonymised with the former), Oxynoemacheilus
Bănărescu and Nalbant, 1967 (see Bănărescu and Nalbant, 1967; synonymised with Orthrias in Bănărescu and Nalbant (1995) and with Barbatula in Bogutskaya and
Naseka (2004)), Paracobitis Bleeker, 1863 (see Bănărescu and Nalbant, 1967), Schistura McClelland, 1839 (see Mirza, Nalbant and Banarescu, 1981; regarded as polyphyletic by
Bănărescu and Nalbant (1995)), and Seminemacheilus Bănărescu and Nalbant, 1995 (q.v.). Views on the generic validity of these names conflict between authors and
between the same author at different dates (see Krupp, 1985c; Eschmeyer, 1990; Eschmeyer et al., 1996; Eschmeyer's "Catalog of Fishes"). Kottelat (1984) retained Nemacheilus until
a revision of all species was complete but there has been a tendency to use the above genera and this is followed here. The table below summarises some of these allocations:-
| Species |
Original genus^ |
Other generic allocations^ |
Current genus |
| angorae |
Nemacheilus |
Orthrias |
Barbatula |
| bampurensis |
Nemacheilus |
- |
Schistura |
| bergianus* |
Nemachilus |
Orthrias |
Barbatula |
| brandtii |
Nemachilus |
Orthrias |
Barbatula |
| cristatus* |
Nemacheilus |
Paracobitis |
Schistura |
| farsicus* |
Orthrias |
|
Barbatula |
| frenata* |
Cobitis |
Nemacheilus, Orthrias |
Barbatula |
| iranica* |
Paracobitis |
- |
Paracobitis |
| kermanshahensis |
Noemacheilus |
Orthrias |
Barbatula |
| kessleri |
Nemachilus |
- |
Schistura |
| longicauda* |
Cobitis |
Nemacheilus, Adiposia |
Paracobitis |
| longipinnis |
Ilamnemacheilus |
- |
Ilamnemacheilus |
| malapterura* |
Cobitis |
Nemacheilus |
Paracobitis |
| nielseni |
Schistura |
- |
Schistura |
| persa* |
Cobitis |
Nemacheilus, Oxynoemacheilus, Orthrias |
Barbatula |
| rhadinaeus* |
Nemachilus |
Adiposia |
Paracobitis |
| sargadensis |
Nemacheilus |
- |
Schistura |
| smithi |
Noemacheilus |
- |
Paracobitis |
| stoliczkai |
Cobitis |
Nemacheilus |
Triplophysa |
| tongiorgii |
Seminemacheilus |
- |
Seminemacheilus |
| vignai |
Paracobitis |
- |
Paracobitis |
* original suffix which may change if genus changes to masculine or to feminine; ^ Nemacheilus sometimes spelled Noemacheilus or Nemachilus by various authors
A number of balitorid species have been described from waters confluent with Iran, particularly from the Helmand River basin in Afghanistan. They have no Iranian records but are listed here as
they may be relevant to revisionary studies.
Members of this family in Iran are characterised by an elongate and weakly compressed and almost cylindrical body, head not compressed but rounded, scaleless or body covered in minute scales (too
small for scale counts to be commonly or easily made), lateral line complete or incomplete, a small and inferior mouth, lips thick, fleshy and papillose, lower lip interrupted in the middle, 2 pairs of
barbels on the snout and 1 pair at the mouth corners (8 pairs in some non-Iranian species), no collapsible spine under the eye (sometimes present in non-Iranian species but distinguishes
members of the related Cobitidae in Iran), eyes small to minute, usually not visible from the underside of the head, reduced gill opening, short to moderate dorsal fin without spines, short anal fins,
vent a short distance in front of anal fin origin, swimbladder enclosed partially or entirely in a bony capsule, certain osteological characters such as the shape of bones in the
Weberian apparatus used in sound transmission from the swimbladder to the ear, gut short or long, a dermal crest or adipose fin may be present, caudal fin truncate, rounded or slightly forked, and
often distinctive colour patterns of bars, stripes and blotches. Iranian species may lack scales, may have an adipose fin, and have a single unbranched ray leading the pectoral and pelvic fins.
Krupp (1985c) reviews prior works by P. M. Bănărescu and co-authors on Levantine balitorids and regards them as unsatisfactory. This calls into question works on Iranian species by this
author. Krupp (1985c) lists characters important in studying Nemacheilus sensu lato and those which are individually variable or develop independently, much in contrast to characters
favoured by Bănărescu. Morphometric characters can vary with nutritional status and ecological factors. Stable characters were head length, interorbital width, caudal peduncle length and depth,
and predorsal length. Fin lengths are dependent on sex in some species, less so in others. Allometry is a problem in fin positions and measurements involving such characters can only be used when
comparing fish of equal size. Mouth width and digestive tract shape are good characters but lip shape and development of the processus dentiformis are not. The swimbladder capsule form, including the
presence or absence of a continuous collar between the two hemispheres and the shape of laminae, is an important character. Reduced laminae and wide recesses on the hemispheres are
derived characters. The dorsal adipose fin development is stable in some species, variable in others, and is independently derived in different phyletic lines, thus being of limited value. The shortening
and deepening of the caudal peduncle is derived in one Levantine species. Scale characters such as size and position of the focus and general scale structure are very variable and not characters easily
quantified. Only specimens of the same size are comparable and numerous scales must be examined because aberrant ones are common. The lateral line length is a good character, although juvenile fish may
have a shortened one. A reduced lateral line is a derived character. Colour patterns are subject to variation and both spotted and striped forms can be found within one species. Nevertheless, patterns can
be important in distinguishing species. Thickening of pectoral fin rays is a derived feature but absence of this character is a symplesiomorph condition and cannot be used to relate species.
The species in this family are often difficult to identify and many literature reports are undoubtedly mis-identifications. While some of these may be corrected based on material deposited in museums,
others have no voucher material and cannot be re-identified. Identification is problematical because scale counts are not available (too minute), fin ray counts are often very similar, and
unique structures uncommon. Colour patterns can be used but are notoriously variable and many types in museums are decoloured making comparisons difficult. Morphometric characters require good series of
adult fish of both sexes, from various localities in the species range, preferably even from the same locality taken over several years to allow for local variations in habitat which may conceivably affect
shape. Menon (1987) considers that many species in this genus are from very similar habitats, the stressful one of running water, and have been constantly selected to fit this niche. Valid species
resemble one another closely. Such characters as position of the anal opening, the dorsal fin origin and barbel length have been used in species definitions but Menon (1987) found these to vary with
growth. Swimbladder structure depends on the habitat where the fish live and scale coverage on the physico-chemical nature of the water. Menon (1987) found lateral line character, number of branched
dorsal fin rays, caudal fin shape, secondary sexual characters in males and, despite the above, body colour and anal opening position to be useful.
Examination of Iranian species, where good series of fresh material was available, tend to confirm the observations of Krupp and Menon on characters. Position of the dorsal fin origin is variable
within a species among morphometric characters used as distinctive, extent of the lateral line is also variable, there is marked sexual dimorphism, and colour patterns can be useful but also vary with
the individual, the habitat and the temperature (fish kept in ice water have strong colour patterns while those preserved immediately from murky waters have faint patterns).
Two main problems exist in identifying certain Iranian loaches. These are determining appropriate characters which are not individually variable and which are apomorphic, and applying existing names
to fresh material in comparison with poorly-preserved types.
A number of species remain to be described and are currently under study. Some named species are probably distinct taxa, e.g. Nemacheilus (= Barbatula) tigris (Heckel,
1843) (sagmahi-ye Dajleh) is recorded from the Karun River basin in Khuzestan (ZISP 24098) by Berg (1949) but specimens from this part of Iran differ from Heckel's types. The colour pattern on the fish
figured by Berg (1949) from the Karun River in Iran is atypical according to Bănărescu and Nalbant (1967) - it has only 4-5 bars on the posterior part of the body. The type locality of Cobitis
Tigris is "Flüsschen Kueik bei Aleppo" (Haleb, Syria) according to Heckel (1843b).
Sawada (1982) thought that this family dispersed by two routes from Southeast Asia, one through Siberia and one through South Asia to reach what is now Iran. Menon (1987) considers that the land mass
between East Africa and the west coast of India has submerged only recently, probably simultaneous with the birth of the Ganges and Indus. Connections of the Pleistocene fore-deep of the Himalayas with
the Tigris-Euphrates basin in what is now the Persian Gulf could have existed, allowing movement of "Nemacheilus" species along a continuous route from Yunnan to Anatolia. Menon (1987)
further suggests a series of waves, spreading "Nemacheilus" westwards into Southwest Asia from a South China origin. The Triplophysa wave is the first wave of evolution, in which
the earliest stock from Yunnan spread through Tibet in the late Miocene and early Pliocene before the major rise of the Himalayas. By the end of the Tertiary, particularly in the Pleistocene, the Tibetan
Plateau had risen causing a dry and cold climate with increased solar radiation and torrential rivers. This change in the environment caused rapid evolution, leading to such taxa as Triplophysa
and Hedinichthys. The rupecola wave took place in the late Pliocene along the southern face of the Himalayas through Iran to Anatolia and even northeast Africa. Some of the criticisms listed
under the cyprinid genus Garra, whose distribution Menon (1964) also attributes to waves, may be apposite here too.
These small fishes are quite secretive, hiding under stones or in mud. This common and stressful habitat may have led to a general similarity in body form among the various species. Some are known only
from caves, including one Iranian species. Despite their small size, they are regarded as a delicacy in India (Hora, 1956). Barbatula angorae (and presumably other species) is a potential fishing
bait for predatory fishes such as Sander lucioperca and has been examined experimentally for this purpose in Turkey (Kuşat et al., 1995). They are generally known as سگ
ماهي (sag mahi meaning dog fish, but this is presumably the equivalent of loach in English), لوچ (= louch meaning loach) or mar mahi (= snake fish, presumably
in reference to the elongate shape) in Farsi. These general names are not repeated below.
Genus Barbatula
Linck, 1790
Species in this genus were formerly placed in Orthrias (see Eschmeyer's "Catalog of Fishes" to track conflicting views). There are at least 18 species found mainly in western Asia
with a few in Europe. The body is elongate, thick, and rounded or slightly compressed. The head is slightly depressed or compressed. Eyes are small and widely spaced. The caudal peduncle is relatively
deep. The body is covered by scales at least on the posterior part of the body, the lateral line is complete or at least passes the middle of the body length, and the lateral line tubes do
not penetrate the scales. There are no nasal barbels. The lower lips are moderately furrowed. The dorsal fin has 7-9, rarely 10, branched rays. The pelvic fins are inserted slightly behind the dorsal fin
origin. The caudal fin is slightly emarginated to deeply forked. There is no dorsal crest on the caudal peduncle. The processus dentiformis (a tooth-like projection at the symphysis of the upper jaw) is
weakly or moderately developed and lacks a corresponding gap in the lower jaw. The gut is short. Colour is variable, being barred, striped, irregular spots and blotches, or more or less regular rows of
spots. The pectoral fin of males is broadened and thickened, and covered by tubercles in the spawning season. Tubercles also develop on the sides of the head.
Barbatula angorae
(Steindachner, 1897)
Common names
sagmahi-ye Angora, sagmahi-e-jooibari.
[lakh angorae in Arabic; Angor cilpaxcasi (or cilpagcasi), Lankaran cilpaxcasi (or cilpagcasi), both in Azerbaijan; Angorskii golets or Angora loach, Lenkoranskii golets or Lenkoran loach, both in
Russian; otsidzug in Armenia; stone loach].
Systematics
Nemacheilus angorae was originally described from Angora (= Ankara, Turkey). Nemacheilus bergi Gratsianov, 1907 and possibly Nemacheilus bergianus Derzhavin, 1934 are synonyms.
Nemacheilus angorae lenkoranensis Abdurakhamanov, 1962 (incorrectly lenkoranica in Bănărescu and Nalbant (1967)) is described from "rivers of the Lenkoran
coast; Lenkoranchai, Vilyazhchai, Kumbashichai, Tangyaru, Astarinka" in the southern Caspian Sea basin.
Orthrias angorae araxensis Banarescu and Nalbant, 1978 in Banarescu, Nalbant and Balik (1978), is described from the Aras River basin of Turkey (type locality given below) (this subspecies was
formerly referred to as Nemacheilus angorae bureschi (Drensky, 1928) by Banarescu and Nalbant (1964) and Banarescu (1968)). Nalbant and Bianco (1998) and Fricke et al. (2007) elevate this
taxon to a species.
Nemachilus angorae alasanicus Elanidze, 1983 was described from the upper reaches of the Alazani River at Alvani village, Georgia, a left bank Kura River tributary. It is here attributed to
Elanidze (1983) since it is the only taxon listed in that book without an author.
The lower Kura River basin in Azerbaijan (of which the Aras is part) may have another subspecies in which about 40% of the fish have 7 branched dorsal fin rays, a shallower caudal peduncle than
B. a. araxensis, and a colour pattern similar to B. angorae angorae (Banarescu, Nalbant and Balik (1978); see also description in Abdurakhmanov (1962) for measurements).
B. bergiana from Iran may be another subspecies of B. angorae. The resolution of the systematics of B. angorae and its subspecies or related species depends on obtaining large
numbers of specimens of mature material from the whole range of this species complex. There are few, if any, good characters in this complex which can be used to separate the taxa; body proportions are
especially prone to locally induced variation and even the number of dorsal fin rays is at least as variable within samples as between species.
Sixteen syntypes of Nemacheilus angorae from Tabakane-Sir and
Tschibuk-Tschai, Turkey are in the Naturhistorisches Museum Wien according to Eschmeyer et al. (1996).
The holotype of Orthrias angorae araxensis, 62.0 mm standard length, from the "Kandili Karassu, oberes Araxes-Becken, Osttürkei" is in the Zoologischen Instituts und Zoologischen
Museums der Universität Hamburg (ZMH 4827). Four paratypes, 45.0-65.2 mm standard length, from the same locality are under ZMH 5951 and 2 other paratypes, 51.2-59.3 mm standard length, also from the same
locality are in the Institutul de Stiinte Biologice, Bucuresti, Romania (ISBB 2617). Five paratypes, 38.8-52.0 mm standard length, are from the "Oberlauf des Araxes Flusses bei Aras-Nehri,
Hasankale" under ZMH 4826 and 3 paratypes, 41.0-45.0 mm standard length, from the same locality are under ISBB 2618 (Banarescu et al., 1978; Wilkens and Dohse, 1993).
A series of 18 fish in the Zoological Institute, St. Petersburg catalogued as ZISP 35701 from "Reka Lenkoran, Azerbaidzhan SSR" collected by Yu. Abdurakhmanov, 22.IX.1954 are probably the
type series of Nemacheilus angorae lenkoranensis although they are not marked as such on the jar. One fish is a cobitid, 31.0 mm standard length (probably Cobitis taenia), while the rest
measure 24.9-33.3 mm standard length.
Bănărescu and Nalbant (1967) follow Günther (1899) and describe specimens from the Lake Orumiyeh basin as Nemacheilus (= Barbatula) persa (q.v.) but
Abdurakhmanov (1962) and Saadati (1977) consider them to be close to B. angorae.
Key characters
Abdurakhmanov (1962) distinguishes two subspecies in Azerbaijan by the following key:-
1(2) Caudal peduncle depth in length 2.5-3.3, mean 2.9; dorsal
fin with 7-8 branched rays; length to 80 mm (Kura and Aras river
basins) B. angorae
2(1) Caudal peduncle depth in length 2.0-2.6, mean 2.3; dorsal
fin with 8-9 branched rays; length to 60 mm (rivers of Lenkoran) B.
angorae lenkoranensis
Morphology
Dorsal fin with 2-4, usually 2 according to Banarescu and Nalbant (1964) and Dadikyan (1986), unbranched and 6-9, usually 7-8, branched rays (strong mode of 7 in populations of B. angorae angorae
from Anatolia while the mode for B. angorae araxensis is 8 according to Banarescu, Nalbant and Balik (1978) and for B. angorae lenkoranensis the range is 7-9 usually 8-9 according to
Abdurakhmanov (1962)), anal fin with 2-3 unbranched and 4-6 branched rays, usually 5, pectoral fin with 8-12 branched rays, and pelvic fin branched rays 6-8. The dentiform process on the upper jaw may be
present or absent. The lower lip is more fimbriate than the upper and is interrupted in the middle. Weakly developed median flaps are present. Scales are minute. The lateral line is almost complete
(almost to the caudal fin base). Gut without a posterior loop. Caudal fin almost truncate (deeply forked in Lake Orumiyeh material examined by Bănărescu and Nalbant (1967) - other characters of
this small sample of 3 fish include a long and shallow caudal peduncle, vent just in front of the anal fin, pelvic fin origin under that of dorsal fin, dorsal fin origin much nearer caudal fin base than
snout tip, large eyes, lateral line almost complete ending just before the caudal fin, scales are distinct, especially in the posterior half of the body, and cover the whole body including the ventral
part, the upper lip is nearly smooth and has a narrow median interruption, the lower lip is more furrowed and has a wider interruption, the posterior part of the intestine is straight, males have
thickened pectoral fin rays with tubercles, flanks are spotted to reticulate, and there is a band at the caudal fin base). The subspecies B. angorae araxensis has body proportions practically the same
as the type subspecies from Anatolia according to Banarescu, Nalbant and Balik (1978) but the caudal fin margin is almost straight and colour is different.
Sexual dimorphism
Mature males have a dense covering of tubercles on the head, body and fins. Pectoral fin rays 2-4, and to some extent 1 and 5, are thickened, widened and densely tuberculate. Pectoral and pelvic fins
are longer in males than females.
Colour
Colour is variable but overall is greyish to yellow with orange tints in particular on the head. There are 5-6 spots along the mid-line of the back and about 20 brown to blackish spots along
mid-flank, forming almost a stripe, especially in young. The dorsal spots may also form a stripe. The base of the caudal fin has a black bar. The dorsal and caudal fins have brown bars composed of small
spots. The pectoral fin may also have bars, particularly in males. The other fins are hyaline. The subspecies B. angorae araxensis is darker in colour than B. angorae angorae, the flanks
being covered in nearly black spots and fine dots almost as low as the belly. The spots are irregular or follow the lateral line almost to the caudal fin but there is no stripe as in the other subspecies.
Size
Reaches 8.5 cm.
Distribution
Found in the Black Sea basin, Aegean Sea basin and the Caspian Sea basin. In Iran, it is recorded from the the Anzali Mordab, upper Safid River basin (Qezel Owzan and Shahrud), the Qareh Su of the
Aras River basin in the Caspian Sea basin, southern and eastern tributaries of Lake Orumiyeh (Zarineh and Tata'u, and Talkheh rivers), rivers of the Namak Lake basin (Karaj, upper Shur or Abhar,
middle and upper Qareh Chai rivers, Jajrud), and possibly in the eastern Kavir basin (Bănărescu and Nalbant, 1967; Saadati, 1977; Holčík and Oláh, 1992; Abbasi et al., 1999; Abdoli,
2000; Jolodar and Abdoli, 2004). Specimens from Lake Orumiyeh identified as Nemacheilus persa by Günther (1899) are probably this species.
Iranian Caspian Sea and Namak Lake basin fish are probably B. bergiana. If B. angorae is restricted to Turkey, then the species for the western Caspian is lenkoranensis and for the
Kura-Aras basin is araxensis.
Zoogeography
see (Bănărescu and Nalbant, 1967) for discussion, p. 155
Habitat
This species is found in both streams and lakes. In shallow running water it lives among stones and vegetation.
Age and growth
Unknown.
Food
Food items include chironomids, corixids and diatoms as well as the eggs of other fishes such as Alburnus alburnus. Abdoli (2000) lists Trichoptera, Ephemeroptera and Chironomidae.
Reproduction
Fecundity reaches 7000 eggs and egg diameter 0.84 mm. Spawning takes place from May to June.
Parasites and predators
Unknown.
Economic importance
None.
Conservation
None.
Further work
The systematics of this species complex needs to be resolved based on additional material and perhaps modern molecular and genetic techniques.
Sources
Barbatula argyrogramma
(Heckel, 1849)
Reported from the Tigris-Euphrates basin in Iraq but no Iranian record except by Saadati (1977). Its validity is doubtful (see Freshwater Fishes of Iraq for more
information).
Barbatula bergiana
(Derzhavin, 1934)
Common names
sagmahi-ye Safidrud, sehkhareh (?), sagmahi-e-jooibari.
[Sefidrudskii golets or Sefidrud loach in Russian; Safidrud stone loach].
Systematics
The type locality of this species in Latin from Derzhavin (1934) is "Systema fluminis Sefidrud" (= Safid River system). Berg (1948-1949) gives "Sefid-rud basin: Kisum village; Shah-rud
R., falling into the Sefid-rud". The former is at Kisom at 37°14'N, 49°51'E or 37°12'N, 49°54'E in a gazetteer.
Bănărescu and Nalbant (1967) and Banarescu, Nalbant and Balik (1978) place this species as a subspecies of B. angorae. Nalbant and Bianco (1998) consider it to be a distinct species
in Orthrias. Abdurakhmanov (1962) compares fish from Lenkoran (B. angorae lenkoranensis) with B. bergiana. Head length and depth, predorsal distance, body depth, caudal peduncle depth,
dorsal fin height, and pectoral and pelvic fin lengths are all greater in lenkoranensis while caudal peduncle length, pectoral-pelvic fin distance, interorbital width and eye diameter are all
greater in bergianus.
The problems of the systematics of such a widespread and variable taxon as B. angorae are briefly alluded to under that species and I have retained B. bergiana as a distinct species until
the problem has received a full study.
The holotype of Nemacheilus bergianus is 41.6 mm standard length and is in the Zoological Institute, St. Petersburg (ZISP 25433) and is from "Basin R. Sefid-Rud, c. Kissum, River Shahrud,
tributary Sefid-Rud", collected by A. N. Derzhavin, 20.V.1922. The specimen is faded but there is a figure in Berg (1948-1949, Fig. 619).
Key characters
This species differs from B. angorae by having a less deep caudal peduncle, 3.3 in caudal peduncle length according to ? (but my measurement is 2.6 for the holotype). Saadati (1977) states that the
caudal peduncle is deeper in B. bergiana.
| Character/Taxon |
angorae |
araxensis |
bergiana |
brandtii |
lenkoranensis |
| |
|
|
|
|
|
| |
|
|
|
|
|
| |
|
|
|
|
|
| |
|
|
|
|
|
| |
|
|
|
|
|
| |
|
|
|
|
|
Morphology
Dorsal fin with 3 unbranched and 8 branched rays, anal fin with 3 unbranched and 5 branched rays, pectoral fin with 9 branched rays and pelvic fin with 6-7 branched rays. Vertebrae 31. The pelvic fins
are separated by almost the width of a pelvic fin base. Caudal fin slightly emarginate. The upper lip is indented at the mid-point with a bony projection underneath. The lower lip is interrupted and also
has a bony projection underneath. There are no adipose fins. The flank is minutely scaled and the lateral line is well-developed along the whole flank (not as in Berg's drawing - ?check this).
Meristics for Iranian fish: dorsal fin branched rays 8(1), anal fin branched
rays 5(1), pectoral fin branched rays 9(1) and pelvic fin branched rays 7(1) -
based on type ?see my material and add
Sexual dimorphism
Unknown.
Colour
The flank has several irregular dark grey blotches and the back has transverse, dark, squarish spots. The back and upper flank have a pinkish tinge. The lower flank is pale yellowish or whitish. The
belly and lower head are white. The iris is silvery on the lower part and golden on the upper, strikingly so. The dorsal, pectoral and caudal fins are pinkish with 2-3 rows of elongate, dark grey spots
along the rays. The caudal fin spots are horizontal rather than forming bands as in Barbatula brandtii. The upper base of the caudal fin is yellowish rather than dark as in B. brandtii.
The pelvic and anal fins are colourless or slightly yellowish-pink without spots. The barbels are typically without pigment except occasionally at the base of the second pair.
Size
Reaches 6.8 cm with Jolodar and Abdoli (2004) giving 7 cm total length.
Distribution
This species is found in the middle Aras River and its tributary the Qareh Chai
(or is araxensis), the Safid, Shahrud and lower Qezel Owzan rivers of the Caspian Sea basin, and the Karaj, Abhar, upper Qareh Chai and
upper Qom rivers of the Namak Lake basin (Saadati, 1977; Abbasi et al., 1999; Abdoli, 2000; Jolodar and Abdoli, 2004)
Zoogeography
See family account.
Habitat
Unknown.
Age and growth
Females are mature at 5.0 cm.
Food
Unknown.
Reproduction
Unknown.
Parasites and predators
Unknown.
Economic importance
None.
Conservation
Kiabi et al. (1999) consider this species to be of least concern in the south Caspian Sea basin according to IUCN criteria. Criteria include few in numbers, habitat destruction, limited range
(less than 25% of water bodies), present in other water bodies in Iran (sic), present outside the Caspian Sea basin (sic).
Further work
The biology and systematics of this species needs study.
Sources
Type material: Holotype of Nemacheilus bergianus (ZISP 25433), see above.
Iranian material: CMNFI 1970-0527, 8, 33.1-42.7 mm standard length, Gilan, Safid River near Kisom (37º12'N, 49º54'E);
CMNFI 1970-0537, 24, 33.3-50.4 mm standard length, Markazi, Shah River near Manjil (36º44'N, 49º24'E);
CMNFI 1970-0545, 1, 44.4 mm standard length, Gilan, Safid River (37º01'N, 49º38'E);
CMNFI 1980-0132, 26, 19.4-44.8 mm standard length, Gilan, Safid River at Kisom (37º12'N, 49º54'E);
CMNFI 1980-0154, 26, ? mm standard length, Markazi, Karaj River below village (35º47'N, 50º58'E);
CMNFI 1980-0156, 80, 29.9-50.8 mm standard length, Markazi, Karaj River near village (35º47'N, 50º58'E).
Barbatula brandtii
(Kessler, 1877)
Common names
sagmahi-ye Kura.
[Kur cilpagcasi in Azerbaijan; Kurinskii golets or Kura loach in Russian].
Systematics
A syntype of Nemacheilus Brandtii from the upper Kura River at Tbilisi (= Tiflis), Georgia is in the Natural History Museum, London (BM(NH) 1897.7.5:39, 19.6 mm standard length, small and
decoloured), formerly in ZISP; other syntypes are in the Zoological Institute, St. Petersburg (ZISP) (Eschmeyer et al., 1996).
Nemachilus brandtii gibbusnazus is a subspecies with the author given as Elanidze in Elanidze (1983). The only apparently new taxon in Elanidze (1983) is Nemacheilus (= Barbatula)
angorae alasanicus (q.v.). This taxon is unique in this book as a species without an author name after it. On this basis it was attributed to Elanidze (1983). The date of N. b.
gibbusnazus may also be 1983 but it may have been described in an earlier paper by Elanidze not yet located by me. Both these subspecies are not mentioned in Eschmeyer et al. (1996) nor in the
online version (downloaded 26 August 2007). The distribution of N. b. gibbusnazus is given as "in fact found before in the R. Khrami (1947), then in the R. Kura (1962), in its lower course at
Kukheti, in the upper reaches at Vardziya - Toloshi, in the R. Alazani - in the upper reaches at Alvani", all in Georgia and the drainage of the Kura River.
Placed in the genus Orthrias by Nalbant and Bianco (1998).
Key characters
This species is distinguished from B. angorae by having 3 unbranched and 8 branched dorsal fin rays (as opposed to 2 unbranched and 7-8 (usually 7) branched in B. angorae), longer and
shallower caudal peduncle (caudal peduncle depth 2.2-3.0 in caudal peduncle length instead of less than 2.0 as in B. angorae), and a more forked caudal fin with more pointed lobes. The caudal
peduncle is said to be somewhat shorter and much lower than in B. angorae araxensis (with which species it occurs in the Aras River basin): length of caudal peduncle 18.4-23.4% and depth 8.0-9.4%
of standard length in brandtii, 18.1-21.8% and 10.2-12.7% in araxensis respectively. Other body proportions are given in Banarescu, Nalbant and Balik (1978). The colour pattern is much
darker and the caudal fin margin is almost vertical in B. a. araxensis.
Morphology
Dorsal fin unbranched rays 3-4 and branched rays 7-9, usually 8, anal fin unbranched rays 2-3 and branched rays 5, pectoral fin branched rays 9-12, and pelvic fin branched rays 6-8. Scales minute. A
weakly developed dentiform process on the upper jaw.
Sexual dimorphism
Unknown.
Colour
Typical fish from the Kura-Aras basin lack a stripe on the flank, having brown spots which are either large, more or less triangular and fairly well-defined or broken into many small speckles forming a
reticulate pattern. Dorsal spots are better defined than in B. angorae especially behind the dorsal fin where they fuse completely or incompletely with the lateral flank spots to form bands.
All spots are brown, never blackish as in B. angorae araxensis. There are several rows of speckles on the caudal fin and two rows on the dorsal fin.
Size
Reaches 8.5 cm.
Distribution
Found in the upper and middle Kura and Aras River basins, and presumably in the Iranian reaches of the latter. It is also reported from the Namak Lake basin by Saadati (1977) citing a
manuscript report by V. D. Vladykov, ? confusion with bergianus and from the Arnar Chay, Azarbayjan.
Zoogeography
See family account.
Habitat
Unknown.
Age and growth
Age at maturity is about 2 years.
Food
Eggs of other fishes may be a food item as well as aquatic insects.
Reproduction
Fecundity reaches 17,409 eggs and egg diameter 0.95 mm.
Parasites and predators
Unknown.
Economic importance
None.
Conservation
Endangered in Turkey (Fricke et al., 2007).
Further work
The biology and systematics of this species need study.
Sources
Type material: Syntype of Nemacheilus Brandtii ((BM(NH) 1897.7.5:39),
see above.
Barbatula cyri
(Berg, 1910)
Nemacheilus tigris cyri Berg, 1910 is described from "Fontes fl. Cyrus, Caucasus". This species is placed in the subgenus or genus Paracobitis by Banarescu (1968) while Fricke
et al. (2007) recognise the subspecies as a distinct species in Orthrias. Six syntypes of N. tigris cyri (31.4-51.5 mm standard length) are in the Zoological Institute, St. Petersburg
(ZISP 13291) from "Okam village Gel'skaya Plain, Karka Oblast", K. Satunin, 6.IX.1901. This is in the upper Kura River basin of Turkey. No Iranian record.
Barbatula farsica
(Nalbant and Bianco, 1998)
Common names
None.
Systematics
Originally described in the genus Orthrias. The species is named for Fars Province. The holotype is in the Department of Zoology, Naples University under IZA 7823. It measures 45.8 mm standard
length (51.8 mm standard length when measured by me) and was collected from the "River Kor near Persepolis" in Fars on 30 May 1976 by P. G. Bianco (note that IZA
is the acronym for Dipartimento di Scienze Ambientali, Universita' Degli Studi
Dell'Aquila
L'Aquila, Italy,
where the material was previously stored). Paratypes were all collected by P. G. Bianco and include 64 specimens, 39.0-57.0 mm standard length from the same locality as the holotype (IZA 7824), 61
specimens, 38.5-60.0 mm standard length from the same locality as the holotype but taken on 7 July 1975 (IZA 7825), 7 specimens, 42.0-51.3 mm standard length, same locality as the holotype but taken on 7
July 1975 stored in the Institutul Stiinte Biologice, Bucharest (ISSB 3451), 31 specimens, 43.2-56.3 mm standard length from the River Shur, tributary of the River Mand, near Dasht-e-Arzhan
(Shiraz) 25 May 1976 (IZA 7826), 7 specimens, 47.0-57.0 mm standard length from the latter locality (ISBB 3446), 7 specimens, 47.0-58.0 mm standard length from River Qom, Qom Town 5 May 1975 (IZA 7845)
and 7 specimens, 36.2-47.3 mm standard length from the latter locality (ISBB 3442).
CMNFI material?
Key characters
This fish has long paired fins and a short, deep and compressed caudal peduncle. The flanks and back have roundish brown spots on a marbled background and the head and body are a pale yellow ventrally.
Dorsal and caudal fins have rows of brown spots. The peritoneum is a dull brown. The dorsal fin has 3 unbranched and 8 branched rays, the anal fin 2 unbranched and 5 branched rays, the pectoral fin 2
unbranched and 9-11 branched rays and the pelvic fin 1 unbranched and 6-7 branched rays. It is related to B. brandtii but differs in in the deeper caudal peduncle and longer fins. Other
species outside Iran have differing colour patterns.
Morphology
Dorsal fin branched rays 7-9 (90% with 8 rays in the type description, n=38), anal fin branched rays 4-5 (95% with 5 rays), pectoral fin branched rays 9-11 (69% with 10 rays) and pelvic fin branched
rays 6-7 (65% with 7 rays). The lateral line is straight, on the mid-flank and ends just anterior to the caudal fin base. The cephalic canal system is well-developed laterally. The rear half
of the body is scaled completely and the anterior half has scalation well-developed but not as closely spaced as posterior scales. Scales are oval with a large focus. Esmaeili and Niknejad (2006-2007)
give scanning electron micrographs of the scales along with a description. The head is conical and the eye is small and centrally placed. The nostrils are just anterior to the eyes. The mouth has a
moderate arch with long barbels. Lips and barbels have small tubercles and fine furrows. The upper lip has a median incision and the lower lip lacks mental lobes. The processus dentiformis in the upper
jaw is well-developed but lacks a gap in the lower jaw.
Sexual dimorphism
Males have numerous fine tubercles on the dorsal surface of the pectoral fin rays in bands, and the anterior fn rays are expanded. There are fewer rays and less expansion when progressing proximally.
There is a groove running anteriorly at a slight downward angle from the eye to the antero-ventral corner below the nostril, fading out under the anterior nostril. Near the eye and dorsal to this
groove, fine tubercles form a narrow band. The sides and top of the head are finely tuberculate. The pelvic and dorsal fin rays have tubercles following the rays (not bands as in the pectoral fin). Fine
tubercles line the margin of the scales.
Colour
The dorsal head is speckled brown and there is a dark-brown stripe from the eye to the snout tip, sometimes extending beyond the eye. The back has 7-11, modally 9, rounded dark-brown saddles. Similar
blotches occur on the flank. The dorsal fin has 4 rows of elongate spots, the pectoral fin has up to 6 rows and the caudal fin has 4-5 rows. The anal and pelvic fins are immaculate.
Size
Reaches 67.7 mm standard length.
Distribution
Endemic to Iran and found in the basins of the Namak Lake basin (Qom River), Kor River basin (Kor River) and Gulf basin (Shur River in the Mand River drainage).
Zoogeography
Found in both endorheic and exorheic basins in central and southern Iran.
Habitat
Details are unknown.
Age and growth
Unknown. Esmaeili and Ebrahimi (2006) give a significant length-weight relationship based on 34 fish measuring 3.15-6.77 cm standard length. The a-value was 0.0126 and the b-value 3.084
(a b-value < 3 indicating a fish that becomes less rotund as length increases and a b-value >3 indicating a fish that becomes more rotund as length increases).
Food
Unknown.
Reproduction
Unknown.
Parasites and predators
Unknown.
Economic importance
None.
Conservation
Population trends and numbers unknown.
Further work
More collections are needed to record information on biology and distribution.
Sources
Type material: The holotype (IZA 7823) and paratypes (IZA 7824, 7825, 7845) of Orthrias farsicus, see above.
?CMNFI material IZA 7824, 3 as gift, 36.5- , IZA 7826, 3 as gift, 34.0- the measurements are the smallest fish in these samples)
Barbatula frenata
(Heckel, 1843)
Common names
See genus account.
[lakh or telay (= bowed head according to Heckel (1843b) at Mosul), both in Arabic; banded Tigris loach].
Systematics
The type locality of Cobitis frenata is "Tigris", presumably at Mosul (Heckel, 1843b). Five syntypes are in the Naturhistorisches Museum Wien (NMW 48552) although the catalogue lists
only 4 specimens. A lectotype designated by F. Krupp in 1984 is 70.0 mm standard length, the remaining specimens being small, 27.2-43.4 mm standard length.
Nemacheilus frenatus afrenatus Battalgil, 1942 described from "un petit ruisseau à Diyarbakir" is also from the Tigris River basin but in Turkey. This subspecies lacks the "frein
à la bouche" (presumably the band across the snout) of B. f. frenata and its dorsal fin is higher than long (as measured at the base) while in B. f. frenata it is as high as long.
Bănărescu and Nalbant (1995) place this species in the genus Orthrias. Bănărescu and Nalbant (1967) consider this taxon to be a "doubtful species" but illustrate
it in Bănărescu and Nalbant (1995: Fig. 20).
Key characters
The colour pattern is distinctive and there is no dermal crest or adipose fin behind the dorsal fin.
Morphology
Dorsal fin unbranched rays 2-3, branched rays 7-8, anal fin unbranched rays 2, branched 5, pectoral fin branched rays 10-13,
and pelvic fin branched rays 6-7. Scales are present over the whole body
but not readily visible without magnification. The anterior pectoral fin rays are thickened. Caudal peduncle thick (depth 80-90% of length) according to Saadati (1977). The bulb of the swimbladder
capsule has large ovoid to circular perforations and the anterior and posterior lamina or wings are only moderately developed (Krupp, 1985c). Lips are not strongly plicate and the dentiform process is
well-developed. The gut has a posterior loop.
Meristics for Iranian specimens: dorsal fin branched rays 8(1), anal fin
branched rays 5(1), pectoral fin branched rays 10(1) and pelvic fin branched
rays 6(1) based on lectotype.? add my material
Sexual dimorphism
Bands of tubercles are found on the pectoral fin rays of males, including the first, declining in breadth and extent on the smaller rays. Tubercles are also present on the pelvic and anal fin rays but
are much less well developed. The head is covered in fine tubercles. Flank scales, particularly anterior ones, are lined anteriorly with tubercles. There is an elongate tuberculate swelling anterior to
the lower eye margin on the snout.
Colour
Overall colour is yellowish, mottled with fine but irregular brown or black dots or blotches, some flank blotches being quite large. The rear of the body and the caudal fin in particular are mottled
with brown, tending to form bars. A black band is continuous from the front of one eye, across the snout and round to the other eye. It may be diffuse on the snout or well-defined in fish from the
same locality. The dorsal and caudal fins have thin but irregular bands made up of spots on the rays (up to 3 on the dorsal and 4 on the caudal fin), bands are faintly present on the anal and pelvic fins,
and only a few are visible on the pectoral fins. The dorsal fin has an anterior basal spot at its origin, variably developed in individuals. There are distinct, dark spots at the base of the caudal fin
above and below the body mid-line.
Size
Reaches about 9.2 cm (Heckel, 1843b).
Distribution
Found in the Quwayq and Tigris-Euphrates rivers. Abdoli (2000) records it from the upper Karun, middle and lower Dez, Kashkan and Simarreh rivers in the Tigris River basin of Iran.
Zoogeography
See family account.
Habitat
Known to inhabit both rivers and lakes, the environmental requirements of this species are unknown.
Age and growth
Unknown.
Food
Unknown.
Reproduction
Unknown.
Parasites and predators
Unknown.
Economic importance
None.
Conservation
The biology of this species, its distribution, numbers and habitat requirements are unknown so no comments on conservation can be made. Near threatened in Turkey (Fricke et al., 2007).
Further work
The biology and conservation status of this species need investigation.
Sources
Type material: Syntypes of Cobitis frenata (NMW 48552), see above.
Iranian material: BWC 95-30, mm standard length, .
Comparative material: BM(NH) 1974.2.22:1449-1477, 30, 37.7-55.5 mm standard length, Iraq, branch of Khalis River ();
BM(NH) 1974.2.22:1478-1757, ca. 279, 19.7-53.3 mm standard length, Iraq, Khalis ();
BM(NH) 1974.2.22:1758-1772, 15, 27.2-34.1 mm standard length, Iraq, Khalis ();
BM(NH) 1972.2.22:1773-1776, 4, 28.3-34.0 mm standard length, Iraq, Khalis ();
BM(NH) 1974.2.22:1777-1778, 2, 27.5-31.4 mm standard length, Iraq, Khalis ();.
Barbatula kermanshahensis
(Bănărescu and Nalbant, 1967)
Common names
sagmahi-ye Kermanshah.
[Kermanshah loach].
Systematics
This species was tentatively placed in the subgenus Orthrias Jordan and Fowler, 1903 but is regarded as "aberrant" by Bănărescu and Nalbant (1967).
However, Nalbant and Bianco (1998) later place it in Orthrias.
The holotype of Noemacheilus kermanshahensis (ZMUC P 2787, 46.4 mm standard length) and the 7 paratypes (ZMUC P 2788-94, 25.5-61.8 mm standard length) are stored in
the Zoological Museum of Copenhagen (Nielsen, 1974). The type locality is "Kermanshah in the drainage of the Karun River, a tributary of the lower Euphrates, Western Iran" (Bănărescu
and Nalbant, 1967). The type series was collected on 5 February 1937 by E. Kaiser. The type locality is poorly defined - the city of Kermanshah is on the Qarasu River and lies in the drainage of the
Karkheh River which drains towards the Tigris River. Nalbant and Bianco (1998) correct their original type locality description to the Karkheh River drainage and "Quareh Su, Kermanshah, River
Shimarek", probably referring to the Qareh Su-Simareh drainage of the upper Karkheh River.
Key characters
Bănărescu and Nalbant (1967) consider that this species differs from most South and West-Asiatic loaches by the longitudinal pigment pattern on the flank. Most other species have bars,
vertical patches of pigment. The longitudinal arrangement is found in B. angorae but kermanshahensis has smaller eyes, a shorter lateral line (almost complete in angorae), a
more anteriorly placed vent, and scale shape comprising an almost central focus, vertical sub-oval outline and radii on all fields widely and evenly spaced. Characteristically the caudal peduncle is
short and deep, depth being 92.9-114.3% of length (Saadati, 1977).
Morphology
Dorsal fin with 3 unbranched and 7-8 branched rays, anal fin with 2 unbranched and 5-6 branched rays, and pelvic fin with 6-7 branched rays. Scales only on the posterior part of the body,
well-developed on the caudal peduncle. The lateral line reaches the level of the middle or posterior half of the dorsal fin or over the front half of the anal fin. The origin of the dorsal fin is variable
in relation to the snout tip and caudal fin base (Bănărescu and Nalbant, 1967). The caudal peduncle is short and deep and lacks a crest. The anus is somewhat anterior to the anal fin origin.
Lips are thick and fringed, the lower lip being interrupted in the middle. The intestine is simple with the posterior part straight.
The type series counts are dorsal fin branched rays 7(8), anal fin branched rays 5(8), pectoral fin branched rays 8(3), 9(1), or 10(3), pelvic fin branched rays 6(3) or 7(6); vertebrae 38(6), 39(2) or
40(1).
Sexual dimorphism
Check my fish ? No sexual dimorphism was noted by Bănărescu and Nalbant (1967) as their large specimen is female and others immature.
Colour
The overall colour is yellowish with about 12, dark brown bars on the flank my fish - check this,
see my fish?. A stripe on the mid-line of the back breaks up into spots posteriorly.
The colour pattern in alcohol-preserved specimens dating from 1937 is yellowish with 3 wide, brownish stripes along the flank. The dorsal stripe is continuous anteriorly but breaks up into spots
posteriorly in most specimens. The central, mid-flank stripe is the widest and is continuous although width is variable. The ventral "stripe" (my quotation marks) is absent from smaller
specimens and consists of small and irregular spots. The upper parts of the head have small, irregular brownish spots. The caudal fin has 3 rows of spots and the dorsal fin 2 rows of spots, apparently
concentrated on the fin rays (Bănărescu and Nalbant, 1967).
Size
Reaches 6.3 cm standard length.
Distribution
Known only from Tigris River basin drainages of Iran. Abdoli (2000) reports it from the Marun, upper Karun and lower Khersan, Dez, Simarreh, Qareh Su and Gav Masiab rivers.
Zoogeography
Relationships may lie with B. angorae according to Bănărescu and Nalbant (1967) based on colour pattern and general body shape, or with other species not found in Iran having stripes
along the flank. This seems insufficient evidence on which to base relationships.
Habitat
my collection data ?
Age and growth
Unknown.
Food
Unknown.
Reproduction
Unknown.
Parasites and predators
Unknown.
Economic importance
None.
Conservation
No measures are being undertaken for this poorly known species.
Further work
Studies should be carried out to determine the numbers of this species, its distribution and its ecological requirements in Iran to ascertain if conservation measures should be taken.
Sources
Type material: The holotype (ZMUC P 2787) and paratypes (ZMUC P 2788-94) of Noemacheilus kermanshahensis, see above.
Iranian material: CMNFI 1979-0285, 20, 32.0-52.6 mm standard length, Kermanshahan, Marek River (34º26'N, 46º37'E)checkID?; CMNFI 1979-0286, 1,
54.2 mm standard length, Kermanshahan, Ravansar River at Ravansar (34º43'N, 46º40'E)checkID?; CMNFI 1993-0128, 1,
? mm standard length, Kermanshahan, Sarab-e Sabz 'Ali Khan (34º25'N, 46º32'E);
BWC 95-17, ? mm standard length, .
Barbatula oxiana
(Kessler, 1877)
Reported from the Karakum Canal of Turkmenistan by Shakirova and Sukhanova (1994) and Sal'nikov (1995), this species may eventually reach the Tedzhen River and Caspian Sea basins of Iran. Originally
described in the genus Nemacheilus. No Iranian record.
Barbatula persa
(Heckel, 1849)
Common names
sagmahi-ye Fars (= Persian loach).
[Persian loach].
Systematics
The type locality for Cobitis Persa is "Quellen um Persepolis" according to Heckel (1846-1849b). Kähsbauer (1964) reports a syntype of this species in the Naturhistorisches Museum Wien
under NMW 48567. It measures 47.6 mm standard length and is probably the holotype as the Vienna catalogue lists only 1 specimen (and the Vienna card catalogue examined in 1997 concurs). This specimen is in
poor condition and not readily comparable to fresh material. It is scaled although scales are not imbricate, the caudal fin is broken off, the body is collapsed so its shape cannot be determined, and it
is decoloured.
Kessler (1877) refers to a Heckel species Nemachilus persicus, presumably this taxon judging from Kessler's page number reference.
Günther (1899) recorded Nemacheilus persa from the Lake Orumiyeh basin ("Zola Chai near Ula") and the upper Aras River basin ("Elinja Chai") but these fish were probably
B. angorae. Berg (1948-1949), Bănărescu and Nalbant (1967) and Nalbant and Bianco (1998) also refer Günther's material to Nemacheilus persa but Abdurakhmanov (1962) suggests that
these fish are Nemacheilus angorae. Saadati (1977) places Lake Orumiyeh fish close to Nemacheilus angorae which makes more sense geographically.
? check my specimens and compare ? The dorsal fin origin is closer to caudal base than the snout tip in the Lake Orumiyeh fish, interorbital width is greater,
the head is longer, the caudal fin less emarginate, and there are more and darker spots on the body (Saadati, 1977). Evidently new material from the Kor River basin wherein lies Persepolis, the type
locality for Cobitis persa, and the Lake Orumiyeh basin are required to resolve this problem - the Lake Orumiyeh sample examined by Bănărescu and Nalbant (1967) comprised only 3 males.
Bănărescu and Nalbant (1967) place this species in their subgenus Oxynoemacheilus but later (Bănărescu and Nalbant (1995); and also Nalbant and Bianco (1998)) place it in
Orthrias.
Key characters
?
Morphology
Dorsal fin with 2-3 unbranched and 8 branched rays, anal fin with 2 unbranched and 5 branched rays, pectoral fin with 8 branched rays, and pelvic fin with 6-7 branched rays. Lateral line almost
complete. Scales are present on the anterior and posterior flank according to Banarescu and Nalbant (1964). Esmaeili and Niknejad (2006-2007) give scanning electron micrographs of the scales along with a
description. The caudal fin is slightly emarginate to forked. The barbels are hair-like thin (Heckel, 1846-1849b).
Meristics for Iranian specimens: dorsal fin branched rays 8(1), anal fin
branched rays 5(1), pectoral fin branched rays 9(1) and pelvic fin branched rays
6(1) based on type ?add my material
Sexual dimorphism
Banarescu and Nalbant (1964) report that pectoral fin rays 2-5 are widened and thickened in males. The appearance of a subocular pad in Bănărescu and Nalbant (1967:Fig. 3) is an error and
was apparently meant to represent a small groove (Bănărescu and Nalbant, 1995).
Colour
The overall colour is yellowish with some brown blotches and 5-7 brown bars on the posterior body and irregular brown blotches on the anterior body. The dorsal and caudal fins are barred.
Size
Reaches 63.2 mm standard length.
Distribution
Found in the Kor River basin and, according to Bănărescu and Nalbant (1967), also in the Lake Orumiyeh basin and probably the whole of western and central Iran. Abdoli (2000) maps the Kor
and Pulvar rivers.
Zoogeography
See family account.
Habitat
Unknown.
Age and growth
Unknown. Esmaeili and Ebrahimi (2006) give a significant length-weight relationship based on 32 fish measuring 2.94-6.32 cm standard length. The a-value was 0.0211 and the b-value 2.784
(a b-value < 3 indicating a fish that becomes less rotund as length increases and a b-value >3 indicating a fish that becomes more rotund as length increases).
Food
Unknown.
Reproduction
Unknown.
Parasites and predators
Unknown.
Economic importance
None.
Conservation
?
Further work
?
Sources
Type material: The holotype of Cobitis persa (NMW 48567), see above.
Iranian material: CMNFI 1979-0019, 2, 28.9-33.7 mm standard length, Fars, Barm-e Baba Hajji (29º23'N, 52º40'E);
CMNFI 2004-0004, ? mm standard length.
Genus Ilamnemacheilus
Coad and Nalbant, 2005
This genus is characterised by a high, laterally compressed body; large head with small eyes and mouth; anterior lip lacking an interruption in the middle; posterior lip with widened mental
lobes, small round papillae covering only the mental lobes, the rest of the lips being unfurrowed; the processus dentiformes absent; lateral line complete and terminating slightly before the posterior
margin of the caudal peduncle; scales small with a quite large and eccentric focus, sparsely present on the rear half of the body; stomach syphonal and intestine straight without loops; gas bladder
with two encapsulated chambers united by a short encapsulated duct; paired fins very long; dorsal fin long; and caudal fin well forked.
The type species is Ilamnemacheilus longipinnis by original designation and monotypy.
Ilamnemacheilus longipinnis
Coad and Nalbant, 2005
Common names
None.
Systematics
The holotype and only known specimen is CMNFI 1979-0366 (79-966 is a lapsus), 36.0 mm standard length, Iran, Meymeh River, formerly a tributary of the Tigris River, 17 km west of Dehloran and about
21 km east of the Iraqi border, 32º45'30&"N, 47º05'30"E, 28 January 1978, B. W. Coad and S. Coad.
Key characters
Characters are those of the genus.
Morphology
Dorsal fin with 3 unbranched and 10 branched rays, anal fin with 2 unbranched and 5 branched rays, pectoral fin with 9 branched rays and pelvic fin with 5 branched rays. Total vertebrae 28 or 29
including the ural centrum (vertebral fusions present), and some centra have two neural and haemal arches. ?check vertebral counts against other loaches - very low ? fusions Other
characters are listed above under the genus and Coad and Nalbant (2005) give some measurements.
Sexual dimorphism
Unknown.
Colour
The sole preserved specimen is a overall a pale brown with 3-4 indistinct greyish blotches in the middle of the second half of the body. All fins are pale but the caudal fin has faded greyish lines
along the marginal rays. In life it was an olive-green overall with orange fins.
Size
Reaches 36.0 mm standard length.
Distribution
Endemic to Iran and found in Tigris River basin at a single locality (see above).
Zoogeography
An endemic genus in the Tigris-Euphrates basin (along with Turcinoemacheilus, not in Iran). This species may be related to an undescribed species from the Orontes River basin in Syria.
Habitat
The sample site was a small stream, 20 m wide with a maximum depth of 1 m. Altitude was 210 m. Capture depth was 30 cm in a medium current. The bottom was a mix of pebbles and mud with some encrusting
algae. Water temperature was 14ºC, pH was 6.0 and conductivity was 1.65 mS. The cyprinids Cyprinion macrostomum and Garra rufa were caught with the loach.
Age and growth
Unknown.
Food
Unknown.
Reproduction
Unknown.
Parasites and predators
Unknown.
Economic importance
None.
Conservation
Known only from a single specimen, abundance and wider distribution unknown.
Further work
More collections are needed to record information on biology and distribution and provide a more detailed description.
Sources
The holotype and sole known specimen (see above).
Genus Paracobitis
Bleeker, 1863
This genus comprises about 8, comparatively large species in western Asia. The body is elongate, thick anteriorly and posteriorly compressed. The head is strongly depressed. The caudal peduncle is
long, low and bears an elongate crest dorsally from the dorsal fin to the caudal fin. The caudal fin is slightly emarginate or truncate, rarely rounded. Scales are present and the lateral line
is complete. The processus dentiformis is strongly developed but its notch on the lower jaw is reduced. Lips are smooth or grooved. The gut is short with a single loop. The colour pattern is variable
comprising bars or irregular spotting. Males and females show no external differences.
Paracobitis boutanensis
(McClelland, 1842)
Probably described from the neighbourhood of the Bolan Pass, Helmand River drainage of Afghanistan in the Sistan basin according to Hora (1929) and Bănărescu and Nalbant (1967). No Iranian
record.
Paracobitis ghazniensis
(Bănărescu and Nalbant, 1967)
Described from "Ghazni, on the Ghazni River, tributary of the Ab-i-Istadah Lake, Helmand drainage; East Afghanistan" (Bănărescu and Nalbant, 1967). Ghazni is at 33°33'N, 68°26'E in
the Sistan basin. No Iranian record.
Paracobitis iranica
Nalbant and Bianco, 1998
Common names
sagmahi-ye irani.
[Iranian loach].
Systematics
The species is named for Iran. The holotype is 79.8 mm standard length (66.0 mm standard length when measured by me) and is from "River Qom near the town of Qom" collected on 6 May 1976 by
P. G. Bianco and stored in the Department of Zoology, University of Naples (IZA 7831). The locality in the jar is "Qom River near Qom (a little salt river 3.5 p.p.t.) near Qom at the bridge,
950 m, 5 June 1976", the date being at variance with the published date. Paratypes number 5 specimens, 59.0-92.0 mm standard length (IZA 7832)(only two present in 2002 visit by me), and 4 specimens,
47.0-72.0 mm standard length (Institutul Stiinte Biologice, Bucharest, ISBB uncatologued). It may be related to P. malapterura and P. longicauda
but differs in colour and the larger caudal peduncle keel.
Key characters
The body is elongate with a compressed posterior region and a depressed head. The caudal peduncle is elongate and has a long dorsal adipose crest. The body is scaled. The overall colour is
yellowish-white with a row of dark grey spots on the mid-back and on mid-flank. Spots extend onto the adipose crest. A row of dark irregular spots is found on the posterior part of the ventral region.
The holotype has a dorsal fin with 3 unbranched and 7 branched rays, an anal fin with 2 unbranched and 5 branched rays, a pectoral fin with 2 unbranched and 9 branched rays and a pelvic fin with
1 unbranched and 5 branched rays.
Morphology
The dorsal fin has 7-8 branched rays (90% with 7 rays, n=9), the anal fin has 5 branched rays in all specimens examined in the type description, the pectoral fin has 9 branched rays in all specimens
and the pelvic fin has 6-7 branched rays (78% with 7 rays, n=9). The lateral line is straight and extends to the caudal fin base. The body is minutely scaled with a relatively eccentric and
large focal zone. The head is conical with eyes in the anterior half. The nostrils are just in front of the eyes. The mouth has a strong arch with short barbels and well-furrowed lips interrupted in the
middle. The processus dentiformis is well-developed. The stomach is syphonal and the intestine straight. The gas bladder capsule has a relatively short duct.
Sexual dimorphism
Unknown.
Colour
The head is covered by dark grey dots and all fins have small grey dots. See
also Key characters.
Size
Attains 92.0 mm standard length.
Distribution
Known only from the Qom River in the Namak Lake basin, an Iranian endemic.
Zoogeography
This species and similar ones are widely distributed in Iran, although poorly collected, and their systematics and zoogeographical relationships are unknown.
Habitat
Details are unknown. The type series was collected in a small salt river (3.5‰).
Age and growth
Unknown.
Food
Unknown.
Reproduction
Unknown.
Parasites and predators
Unknown.
Economic importance
None.
Conservation
Population trends and numbers unknown.
Further work
More collections are needed to record information on biology and distribution.
Sources
Type material: The holotype (IZA 7831) and paratypes (IZA 7832) of Paracobitis iranica, see above.
Paracobitis longicauda
(Kessler, 1872)
Common names
sagmahi-ye kakoldar-e sharqi (= eastern crested loach).
[vostochnyi grebenchatyi golets or eastern crested loach in Russian].
Systematics
May be a subspecies or synonym of P. malapterura. Has been placed in the genus Adiposia Annandale and Hora, 1920. Banarescu and Nalbant (1964) restrict P. longicauda to basins
in Central Asia (e.g. the Amu Darya) and not Iran. Cobitis longicauda was originally described from the Ak-Darya in the Zeravshan River basin of Uzbekistan and the holotype is in the
Zoological Institute, St. Petersburg under ZISP 2686 (Eschmeyer et al., 1996).
Bănărescu and Nalbant (1995) place this species in Paracobitis.
Key characters
This species is distinguished from P. malapterura by distinct scales and larger size.
Morphology
Dorsal fin unbranched rays 2-3, branched rays 7, anal fin unbranched rays 2-3, branched rays 5, pectoral fin branched rays 9-10,and pelvic fin branched rays 7. Caudal fin truncate. Large fish are
scaled on the flanks, dorsal crest and belly, scales being visible to the naked eye in contrast to the few scales needing a microscope to be visible in P. malapterura and in P. rhadinaea.
Caudal peduncle long, about 4.5-4.6 in standard length.
Sexual dimorphism
Colour
Colour is very similar to P. malapterura with spots sometimes loop-shaped and sometimes rounded.
Size
Reaches 20.0 cm.
Distribution
Found in the Tedzhen and Murgab rivers of Afghanistan and Turkmenistan and in the Aral Sea basin, and in the Tedzhen River basin of Iran.
Zoogeography
See family account.
Habitat
Unknown.
Age and growth
Unknown.
Food
Unknown.
Reproduction
Unknown.
Parasites and predators
Unknown.
Economic importance
None.
Conservation
This species is too poorly known in terms of biology and numbers for an effective conservation assessment.
Further work
The biology of this species in Iran needs study.
Sources
Comparative material: ZISP 2686, 1, 140.8 mm standard length, ?, Samarkand ();
ZISP 4482, 1, 145.7 mm standard length, Zeravshan (?);
ZISP 4483, 4, 107.2- 125.8 mm standard length, ?, Zeravshan ();
ZISP 4484, 8, 62.2-96.7 mm standard length, ?, Zeravshan ();
ZISP 10362, 4, 31.8-112.1 mm standard length, ?, Tedzhen ();
ZISP 10963, 1, 93.7 mm standard length, ?, Samarkand ();
ZISP 13300-13301, 3, 93.7-157.6 mm standard length, Pul-e Khatun (?);
ZISP 14510, 3, 119.4-173.4 mm standard length, ?, Samarkand ();
ZISP 33105, 9, 30.4-98.6 mm standard length, ?, Ak-Darya ().
Paracobitis malapterura
(Valenciennes in Cuvier and Valenciennes, 1846)
Common names
sagmahi-ye kakoldar-e gharbi (= western crested loach), sagmahi-ye juibari or sagmahi-e-jooibari.
[lakh in Arabic; zapadnyi grebenchatyi golets or western crested loach in Russian].
Systematics
The type locality of Cobitis malapterura is given as "Syrie" in Cuvier and Valenciennes (1846) but has not been found there since (Berg, 1948-1949); it does occur in the
Tigris-Euphrates basin however (Coad, 1991b). The specimen was collected by Aucher-Éloy who visited Iran and the specimen may in fact be from there. It is possible that the type locality is in the
Caspian Sea basin of Iran although Banarescu and Nalbant (1964) give the Tigris-Euphrates basin which extends though Syria for the distribution of P. malapterura malapterura.
Bănărescu and Nalbant (1995) places this species Paracobitis.
Cobitis longicauda Kessler, 1872 is possibly a synonym. Banarescu and Nalbant (1964) restrict P. longicauda (q.v.) to basins in Central Asia (e.g. the Amu Darya) and not
Iran. Nemacheilus macmahoni Chaudhuri, 1909 has been advanced as a synonym or subspecies (Nikol'skii, 1947; Berg, 1948-1949; 1949; Banarescu and Nalbant, 1964) but see the review in
Bănărescu and Nalbant (1967) and below under P. rhadinaea. Banarescu and Nalbant (1964) consider fish from Sistan and the Caspian Sea basin of Iran to be P. malapterura macmahoni.
Filippi's (1865) record of Cobitis merga (Krynicki, 1840) from "fiumicelli di Sartschem e di Sainkalé" was P. malapterura; these localities being in the Safid River basin near
the falling of the Zanjan River into the Qezel Owzan of Safid Rud (Berg, 1948-1949) presumably at Sarcham-e Sofla (37°07'N, 47°54'E) and possibly Sa'in Qaleh (36°18'N, 49°04'E) in the Namak Lake basin.
Two syntypes are in the Muséum national d'Histoire naturelle, Paris under MNHN 3962 and B.3070 (formerly MNHN 3962) (Eschmeyer et al., 1996) and measure 125-145 mm total length (Bertin and
Estève, 1948).
Key characters
The colour pattern is distinctive and there is a well-developed dermal crest or adipose fin behind the dorsal fin to the caudal fin base.
Morphology
Dorsal fin with 2-3 unbranched and 6-8 branched rays, anal fin with 2-3 unbranched and 5 branched rays, pectoral fin branched rays 10-12 (Nikol'skii (1947) gives 7-10) and pelvic fin branched rays 5-7.
Caudal fin slightly emarginate. There is a well-developed dermal crest or adipose fin behind the dorsal fin to the caudal fin base. Scales are scattered on the posterior body in large fish but need
magnification to be seen. The lateral line extends almost to the caudal fin. The dentiform process of the upper jaw is well-developed and fits in a lower jaw groove. The lips, especially the lower one,
are strongly plicate. The eyes are small and widely spaced. Caudal peduncle short, 5.6-6.3 times in standard length. The gut is straight posteriorly.
Sexual dimorphism
The cheeks are distended in some fish and this is believed to be a sexual character.
Colour
The top and sides of the body and head are mottled or reticulated with grey and some yellowish pigment. The reticulations may be very fine, giving a more mottled appearance. The belly and lower head
surface are white. The flank reticulations extend onto the caudal peduncle crest. When touching the dorsal margin of the crest, the reticulations make the crest there dark, otherwise the crest is a light
creamy colour along the margin and, in some fish without reticulations reaching the margin, the whole edge is light. The lateral line is white, sometimes in marked contrast to the rest of the flank. The
dorsal fin has darkly pigmented rays, sometimes broken into series of spots. The caudal fin has a series of 4-5 small spots elongated along the rays, the middle series being the blackest. The dorsal margin
of the caudal fin may have 2-4 isolated spots. The pectoral fin has dark pigment along the rays or 2-3 series of small spots. The pelvic and anal fins have 1-2 series of grey spots and the pelvic fin may
have only 1-2 spots. Pelvic and anal fins may be immaculate. At the front or along the base of the anal fin there is a broad pigmented band. There may be a dark, zig-zag bar at the caudal base, merging
dorsally and/or ventrally with flank botches. The barbel bases are all darkly pigmented especially the second pair. The iris is silvery. Young fish have a less reticulated pattern with more
blotches on the flank.
Size
Reaches 15.0 cm.
Distribution
This species is found in the Caspian Sea basin of Iran in rivers from the Safid to the Atrak including the Sardab, Haraz, Babol, Tajan, Karasu, Gorgan, etc. (Laptev, 1934; Nikol'skii, 1947; Kiabi
et al., 1999; Jolodar and Abdoli, 2004). Material from the Kor River and Esfahan basins may be this species and material from the Namak Lake basin are presumably P. iranica.
- ?check
Need to be checked and re-mapped?
Zoogeography
See family account.
Habitat
This species appears to favour deeper water and stronger current than other sympatric loaches.
Age and growth
Tabiee and Abdoli (2005) found a sex ratio of 4:1 (male:female) in the Zarringol River of Golestan Province. Average total length was 59.07 mm for males and 82.42 mm for females. Condition factor was
2.6 for females and 1.97 for males. Esmaeili and Ebrahimi (2006) give a significant length-weight relationship based on 48 Iranian fish measuring 2.67-7.43 cm standard length. The a-value was 0.0126
and the b-value 2.628 (a b-value < 3 indicating a fish that becomes less rotund as length increases and a b-value >3 indicating a fish that becomes more rotund as length
increases).
Food
The Zarringol fish were carnivorous with chironomids making up 65.3% of the diet.
Reproduction
Unknown.
Parasites and predators
A Diplostomum species is recorded from the muscles of this balitorid in the Shirud of Mazandaran (Alghmandi and Dalimi Asi, 2000).
Economic importance
Kiabi et al. (1999) consider this species to be of least concern in the south Caspian Sea basin according to IUCN criteria. Criteria include medium in numbers, habitat destruction, widespread
range (75% of water bodies), present in other water bodies in Iran, and present outside the Caspian Sea basin.
Conservation
Little is known of the biology and population numbers so no conservation assessment can be made.
Further work
The systematics of this species and its relatives need further study.
Sources
?check for newer species from Bianco and Nalbant
Iranian material: CMNFI 1977-0510A, 2, 74.2-81.5 mm standard length, ?;
CMNFI 1979-0252, 1, 53.7 mm standard length, Markazi, jube at Baqerabad (34º55'N, 50º50'E);
CMNFI 1979-0253, 1, 58.9 mm standard length, Markazi, Qareh Chay west of Baqerabad (34º52'N, 50º49'E);
CMNFI 1979-0481, 1, 77.9 mm standard length, Mazandaran, stream 3 km west of Ghalahleekesh (37º18'30"N, 55º31'E);
CMNFI 1979-0486, 18, 12.7-63.2 mm standard length, Mazandaran, stream in Atrak River drainage (37º44'N, 56º18'E);
CMNFI 1979-0489, 2, 27.4-45.3 mm standard length, Mazandaran, stream in Atrak River drainage (37º50'N, 55º53'E);
CMNFI 1980-0154, 8, 45.8-80.8 mm standard length, Markazi, Karaj River below village (35º47'N, 50º58'E);
CMNFI 1980-0156, 24, 28.4-63.6 mm standard length, Markazi, Karaj River near village (35º47'N, 50º58'E);
CMNFI 1980-0160, 3, 35.4-40.0 m standard length, ?
CMNFI 1991-0157, 2, 70.4-73.0 mm standard length, Mazandaran, Ramian River (36º58'N, 55º07'E);
CMNFI 1993-0145, 2, ? mm standard length, Mazandaran, Qareh Su (no other locality data);
CMNFI 1993-0155, 2, 53.4-58.7 mm standard length, Markazi, Sharra River near Khosbijan (34º07'N, 49º23'E);
CMNFI 2007-0121, 5, 45.3-98.3 mm standard length, Hamadan, Qareh Su basin north of Razan (ca. 35º25'N, ca. 49º02'E);
USNM 205921-22, 6, 25.9-34.6 mm standard length, Markazi, Baragon River (ca. 36º00'N, ca. 50º50'E);
BWC 1995-0009, 2, 83.4-83.9 mm standard length, Gorgan River from Kiabi?
Comparative material: ZISP 25788, 1, 62.2 mm standard length, ?, Sumbar River at Aidere (?).
Paracobitis rhadinaea
(Regan, 1906)
Common names
See genus account. Fowler and Steinitz (1956) refer to a fish from Sistan known locally as mahrmahé (sic, presumably mar mahi, snake fish) and this may refer to this species which has an
elongate body.
Systematics
Bănărescu and Nalbant (1995) and Nalbant and Bianco (1998) place this species in Paracobitis.
Nemacheilus macmahoni Chaudhuri, 1909 described from the "affluents (= delta, an error for effluents) of the Helmand" is a synonym according to Bănărescu and Nalbant (1967)
who refute the opinions of Nikol'skii (1947) and Berg (1948-1949; 1949) who consider macmahoni to be identical to P. malapterura. Earlier Banarescu and Nalbant (1964) placed fish from Sistan
and the Caspian Sea basin of Iran as Nemacheilus malapterurus macmahoni. P. malapterura has both lips strongly furrowed, pelvic fin origin under the dorsal fin origin rather than behind,
better developed scales which are also present on mid-flank, and a colour pattern of numerous oblique bands.
P. rhadinaea is distinguished from macmahoni by Annandale and Hora (1920) in having an extremely short posterior diverticulum and minute vesicle in the swimbladder, by the absence of
scales, a more elongate body, smaller, narrower and less flattened head, and by differences in the profile of the body.
A syntype of Nemacheilus rhadinæus (ZSI F1240/1) is in the Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta under the name Adiposia rhadinaea and the holotype of Nemacheilus macmahoni (ZSI
F1222/1) is also there under the name Adiposia macmahoni (Menon and Yazdani, 1968). Two syntypes listed as Nemacheilus rhadinaeus from "Sistan" are in the Natural History Museum,
London (BM(NH) 1905.11.29:28-29, 2, 137.8-209.1 mm standard length).
A specimen in the Zoological Institute, St. Petersburg (ZISP 24413, 76.5 mm standard length) is from "Helmand delta, northwest of Jalalabad, Seistan, XI 1918, Indian Mus. (Dr. Hora)"
according to Berg (1949) and could be a syntype of Nemacheilus macmahoni (Eschmeyer's "Catalog of Fishes", downloaded 20 May 2008). However, this taxon was described from a single
specimen ? . The jar bears a label on the outside reading "N. malapterurus XI 1918 Indian Museum S. L. Hora Delta of Helmand near Jalabad" and another label reads "Adiposia
macmahoni Randa stream 4 mls N.W. of Jalabad Seistan. N. Annandale coll."
Adiposia Annandale and Hora, 1920 (type species Nemachilus macmahoni Chaudhuri, 1909, and including Nemacheilus longicaudus and N. rhadinaeus according to Annandale and Hora
(1920)) is a synonym of Nemacheilus or of Paracobitis.
Key characters
?
Morphology
macmahoni:- ? check The head is broad and flattened and the small eyes are dorsal. The dorsal profile is slightly convex behind the head but the dorsal and ventral profiles soon become straight
and nearly parallel, or thicker in front and tapering behind the dorsal fin. Body depth 5.8 in total length. Caudal fin rounded. Oval scales are found on the posterior part of the body in adults (not in
rhadinaeus in Regan (1906) and Annandale and Hora (1920)) or scales very small and deciduous all over the body. Nostrils are nearer to the eye than the snout tip. The two anterior pairs of barbels
reach back to the nostril level and the posterior pair to the anterior or to middle or to the rear of the eye. The upper lip is minutely tubercular and the lower lip is widely interrupted in the middle.
Scale radii are few and widely spaced, on all fields. Material identified originally as macmahoni has the pelvic origin behind that of the dorsal fin origin level, the caudal fin is slightly
emarginate, the dorsal fin edge is straight, the anus is some distance in front of the anal fin, a well-developed adipose dorsal ridge runs from the dorsal fin to the caudal fin base, the lateral line is
almost complete, scales are restricted to the last third of the body, being small, rounded and far apart, lips are almost smooth, and the intestine has a single loop posteriorly. The
description of rhadinaeus is short. The snout is longer than the postorbital distance, body depth is 7-10 times in body length, head length 5.0-5.5 times in body length, the mouth cleft extends to
below the nostrils, lower lip interrupted medially, outer rostral barbel as long as maxillary barbel reaching back to or beyond nostrils, no scales, dorsal fin origin nearer tip of snout than caudal
fin base, caudal fin slightly emarginate, caudal peduncle 2.0-2.75 as long as deep, 5.0-5.3 in length of fish.
Dorsal fin with 2-3 unbranched and 7 branched rays. Anal fin with 2-3 unbranched and 5 branched rays. Pectoral fin branched rays 10 and pelvic fin branched rays 6-8. Scales are highly deciduous and not
always present on old preserved material. The dorsal fin rounded. There is a well-developed post-dorsal fin crest and a slight ventral crest on the caudal peduncle. The pelvic fin origin lies just in front
of the mid-point of the dorsal fin base. There is an adipose tissue flap at the pelvic fin base. The anterior nostril is a tube followed immediately by a horizontal slit. The bony upper jaw has a slight
protuberance and the lower jaw is curved and not indented.
Meristic values for Iranian specimens including types and macmahoni are:- dorsal fin branched rays 7(33) or 8(1), anal fin branched rays 5(34), pectoral fin branched rays 9(2) or 10(32) and pelvic
fin branched rays 6(2) or 7(32).
Sexual dimorphism
None reported, the pectoral fin being identical in both sexes in material identified as macmahoni (Bănărescu and Nalbant, 1967).
Colour
Living fish identified as macmahoni are pale olivaceous fading to silvery-white on the belly. The head and upper part of the body are irregularly spotted and darker. Some fish are pale yellowish
without markings or with faint marbling. All fins are tinged a dull red, most evidently on the caudal fin, and are obscurely marked with small dark spots. There is a dark band at the caudal base. Preserved
material identified originally as macmahoni is whitish with 9-21 irregular, brownish spots along the flank, other spots are present dorsally and smaller ones between the dorsal and lateral rows.
There are 3 rows of minute spots on the dorsal and caudal fins and 2 rows on the pectoral fin (Bănărescu and Nalbant, 1967). Types of macmahoni are brown all over,
darker dorsally, barbels a lighter brown, dorsal and caudal fins with darker bands, pectoral also slightly banded but anal and caudal uniform light brown.
P. rhadinaea has large oblong or rounded
dark spots on the back and sides, dorsal and caudal fins with small spots and red tinged, lower fins pale and immaculate although pectoral, and to a lesser extent pelvic, fins may be red tinged.
Size
Attains 28.8 cm as macmahoni.
Distribution
This species is probably restricted to the Sistan basin of Iran and presumably Afghanistan. Bănărescu and Nalbant (1967) place this species in the Atrak and Safid rivers of the Caspian Sea
basin, the Abkhar River of central Iran, probably most of Iran, the Helmand drainage and the Tedzhen River, evidently confusing it with P. malapterura and P. iranica. Abdoli
(2000) lists as questionably from the Bejestan, Yazd and Lut basins, from the middle and lower Halil and Bampur rivers of the Hamun-e Jaz Murian basin, and from the Simish and the river to its north in
the Mashkid River basin.
Zoogeography
The closest relatives of this species are P. malapterura and P. longicauda (q.v.) in Iran (Bănărescu and Nalbant, 1967).
Habitat
Annandale and Hora (1920) note that Adiposia macmahoni was healthy buried some inches in mud when cyprinids died in foul water above.
Age and growth
Unknown.
Food
Stomach contents include cyprinid fish remains and mayfly larvae (Annandale, 1921).
Reproduction
Unknown.
Parasites and predators
Unknown.
Economic importance
Unknown.
Conservation
?
Further work
?
Sources
Type material: Syntypes of Nemacheilus rhadinæus (BM(NH) 1909.11.29:28-29), see above.
Iranian material: CMNFI 1979-0222, 11, 16.8-28.8 mm standard length, Sistan, jube 2 km south of Lutak (30º46'30"N, 61º24'E);
CMNFI 1979-0223, 1, 23.9 mm standard length, Sistan, ditch 1 km south of Lutak (30º45'N, 61º24'E);
CMNFI 1979-0228, 3, 55.1-119.8 mm standard length, Sistan, ditch 1 km from Zabol (31º02'30"N, 61º31'E);
CMNFI 1979-0229, 3, 87.4-115.5 mm standard length, Sistan, ditch 5 km from Zabol (31º03'N, 61º33'E);
CMNFI 1979-0231, 1, 22.6 mm standard length, Sistan, jube 3 km from Zabol (31º01'N, 61º32'E);
CMNFI 1979-0232, 2, 82.5-95.6 mm standard length, Sistan, jube 11 km from Zabol (ca. 30º58'30"N, ca. 61º36'E);
CMNFI 1979-0233, 1, 68.7 mm standard length, Sistan, ditch at Deh Vazi (ca. 30º57'N, ca. 61º38'E);
CMNFI 1979-0234, 1, 85.5 mm standard length, Sistan, effluent of Hirmand River near Zahak (30º54'N, 61º40'E);
CMNFI 1979-0237, 2, 17.5-25.2 mm standard length, Sistan, ditch 18 km south of Zabol (30º53'N, 61º27'30"E);
CMNFI 1979-0238, 2, 23.6-27.7 mm standard length, Sistan, ditch 11 km south of Zabol (30º57'N, 61º27'30"E);
BM(NH) 1920.1.20:31-34, 4, 79.6-109.5 mm standard length, Sistan, northwest of Jalalabad (no other locality data);
ZISP 24413, 1, 76.5 mm standard length, Sistan, Randa stream 4 miles northwest of Jalalabad (?).
Paracobitis smithi
(Greenwood, 1976)
Dorsal view of head
Ventral view of head
Common names
sagmahi-ye gharzi (= cave loach), mahi kurghar (= cave fish).
[blind loach].
Systematics
This species is named for Anthony Smith who collected the holotype. Accounts of Smith's searches for cave fishes in Iran are given in his two books (Smith, 1953; 1979). The holotype is in the Natural
History Museum, London under BM(NH) 1976.6.28:1, was collected in April 1976, is apparently an immature male and is 35.5 mm standard length. Locality data is given below.
Greenwood (1976) placed this species in the catchall genus Noemacheilus (correctly Nemacheilus) pending an adequate revision of the subfamily Nemacheilinae and since little purpose would
be served by erecting a new genus for a fish with such features as eyelessness and depigmentation found in common with other unrelated cave-dwelling fishes. Greenwood (1976) considers its relationship to
lie with species in the subgenus or genus Paracobitis as does Nalbant and Bianco (1998).
Key characters
The only eyeless, depigmented balitorid reported from Iran.
Morphology
Dorsal fin with 3 unbranched and 7 branched rays, anal fin with 3 unbranched and 5 branched rays, pectoral fin with 10 branched rays and pelvic fin with 5-6 branched rays. In specimens seen by me
dorsal fin with 7(5) branched rays, anal fin with 5(5) branched rays, pectoral fin with 10(5) branched rays and pelvic fin with 5(5) branched rays. The caudal fin is unusual in having only 14(5) branched
rays. Vertebrae 37-38. check on my fish? The barbels are short with the middle pair the longest. There are no scales. The lateral line is interrupted irregularly and there are more pores on the posterior
half of the body. A long adipose fin is present dorsally, most obvious in young, and a weaker ventral ridge is present. The mouth is subterminal, lips are weakly to moderately papillose, and there is a
horny ridge on the dentaries and on the upper jaw. The middle pair of barbels is the longest. The internarial flap is long. Gill membranes are broadly attached to the isthmus. The gut is short with a
single transverse loop.
Sexual dimorphism
Unknown.
Colour
A dead white with the red of blood visible as a pale pink cast and a deeper red at the gills visible through the gill cover. Small, straw-coloured fat globules are visible under the skin of formalin
preserved fish over the whole head and body with concentrations in the orbits and the fin bases, particularly the dorsal and anal bases. The viscera are visible through the body wall. There is no
peritoneal pigment.
Size
Attains 64.5 mm total length.
Distribution
Found only at "Kaaje-ru" above the garden "Bagh-e Loveh", "Lowa" or "Levan" (probably Loven at 33°04'N, 48°37'E) which is about 4 km from kilometre 382 on the
railway from Bandar Shapur and approximately 12 km north of the railway station Tang-e Haft. The stream below the cave locality is the "Ab-e Serum" which runs into the "Ab-e Zezar"
which is a tributary of the Dez River. The locality is at 33°04'38.6"N, 48°35'33.1"E in Lorestan Province. Further locality details are given in Bruun and Kaiser (1948) and under the cyprinid
Iranocypris typhlops.
Zoogeography
Endemic to Iran, its relationships to other species are unknown. It shares the cave habitat with another eyeless species, Iranocypris typhlops, a member of the family Cyprinidae. This blind cave
species is placed in a world-wide context by Proudlove (1997a; 1997b).
Habitat
Known only from a well-like but natural outlet of a subterranean system. The outlet overflows to form a small stream from January to
May (Smith, 1979) during the snow-melt period in the Zagros Mountains but in April to June this flow ceases (the precise timing of flow and
its cessation is estimated from villager's comments and scientific visits and also varies with precipitation). The well area is about 5
by 3 m and gradually decreases as the year progresses. Divers descended to a depth of 60 feet (= 18.3 m) in 1977 in the "well" until the
resurgence narrowed (Farr, 1977). A rope was let down by R. Mehrani (pers. comm., 2000) and reached 23 m before the rope ran out and yet it was not at
the bottom. Smith (1979) reports divers descending to 60-70 feet (18.3- 21.3 m). The pool shelves deeply under the cliff rearwards but the whole pool
surface is exposed to light. There is no vegetation in the pool except for some encrusting algae on the rocky sides. The shale fragments
forming the outermost floor of the pool have a thin layer of mud on them which may contain algae.
It seems probable that a complex of flooded but narrow and inaccessible passages is the habitat of this species and the well is
merely the surface manifestation of this complex (Bruun and Kaiser, 1948; Smith, 1978; Banister, 1992). There is a smaller pool (about 2 m
across narrowing rapidly inside) and flowing exit stream lower down the gorge, about 50 m away from the main locality, where an Iranocypris typhlops
was seen but not caught in December 2000 (Smith (1979) also tentatively reports sighting a fish here). This is assumed to be
evidence of the interconnectivity of subterranean passages. The main pool was not flowing at this time. The stream from the smaller pool
increases in flow downstream, possibly tapping more groundwater, and eventually has a moderate flow. No fish were seen in it. The stream
falls over a high waterfall (estimated at 10-15 m high by Smith (1979) which seems about right) so the well localities are isolated from the
local fishes in the main river. The main river houses Garra rufa and Nemacheilus species s.l.. The stream shows evidence of recent higher
flow which tends to confirm overflow from the main well.
Sampling in December 2000 recorded a water temperature of 18.5°C, pH 7.5 and a conductivity of 334 µS. Photographs of the habitat can be seen under the
account of Iranocypris typhlops (Cyprinidae).
A captive specimen attempted to climb out of a glass tank, almost its whole body being out of the water before it slid back. It did not hide from or
react to light and spent most of the time resting on the tank bottom, moving along the bottom or more often swimming actively around the tank (Greenwood, 1976).
Age and growth
Unknown.
Food
Unknown but a captive specimen was fed on mosquito larvae.
Reproduction
Unknown.
Parasites and predators
Unknown but there are probably no predators in the cave environment.
Economic importance
Robins et al. (1991) list this species as important to North Americans. Importance is based on its use in textbooks.
Conservation
A fine of 10,000 rials is imposed specifically for illegal fishing of this species (Anonymous, 1977-1978), more recently 100,000 rials (N. Najfpour pers. comm., 2008). It is on the IUCN 1994 Red List
of Threatened Animals as one of two rare fish species from Iran (see also Iranocypris typhlops) and is on the 2000 IUCN Red List as VU D2 (Vulnerable, acute restriction in its area of occupancy,
also on subsequent Red Lists; see also Proudlove (2001)). Coad (2000a), using 18 criteria, found this species to be one of the top 4 threatened species of freshwater fishes in Iran.
B. Sandford (in litt., 1979) considered this fish to be endangered. The cave appeared to be a recently collapsed system and the network of fissures could be quite small. Coupled with recent
collecting the number of extant specimens may be quite low.
This species is much rarer than the co-occurring Iranocypris typhlops, by at least an order of magnitude. Including the holotype, about 14 specimens are known to have been collected
(see below; plus 2 in Muze-ye Melli-ye Tarikh-e Tabi'i, Tehran (MMTT 1227-1228) and 6 collected by students of A. Abdoli, Shahid Beheshti University, Tehran in 2001).
Further work
?
Sources
Type material: Holotype of Noemacheilus smithi (BM(NH) 1976.6.28:1), see above.
Iranian material: CMNFI 2007-0123, 5, 24.1-52.9 mm standard length, type locality, 28 January 1977.
Further information on the habitat is in the account of Iranocypris typhlops.
Paracobitis vignai
Nalbant and Bianco, 1998
Common names
sagmahi-ye Sistan.
[Sistan loach].
Systematics
The species is named for Professor Augusto Vigna Taglianti, La Sapienza University, Rome. The holotype is 89.0 mm standard length (86.5 mm standard length when measured by me) collected from
"Nahr Taheri, Zabol, Seistan" on 9 October 1977 by A. Vigna and is deposited in the (Department of Zoology, University of Naples (IZA 7838). Paratypes are from the same locality and number 24
specimens, 35.0-78.0 mm standard length (IZA 7839) and 7 specimens, 44.0-49.0 mm standard length (Institutul Stiinte Biologice, Bucharest, ISBB uncatalogued). One specimen is in the American Museum of
Natural History (AMNH 40946), presumably a paratype from one of the preceding series.
CMN fish?
Key characters
This species is scaleless and has a deeply forked caudal fin. The dorsal adipose crest or keel on the caudal peduncle is well-developed. The anus is placed well anterior to the anal fin origin. The
dorsal fin has 3 unbranched and 7 branched rays, the anal fin has 2 unbranched and 5 branched rays, the pectoral fin has 1 unbranched and 9 branched rays and the pelvic fin has 1 unbranched and 7 branched
rays.
Morphology
Dorsal fin branched rays 6-8 (80% with 7 rays in original description, n = 20), anal fin with 5-6 branched rays (95% with 5 rays), pectoral fin with 8-10 branched rays (85% with 9 rays) and pelvic fin
with 6-7 branched rays (95% with 7 branched rays). The lateral line extends to the base of the caudal fin. The body is slender and compressed, particularly posteriorly. The head is long and the eyes are
small. The dorsal fin origin is at mid-body (snout tip to caudal fin base). The mouth is arched with strongly furrowed lips that have few papillae. Mental lobes are reduced. The stomach is syphonal and the
intestine is straight. The gas bladder capsule has globular chambers and a short duct.
Sexual dimorphism
Unknown.
Colour
The head and body are greyish, lighter ventrally. Dark spots along the back and flank may be occasionally fused. Fine spots are scattered in a reticulated pattern on the body. The dorsal and caudal
fins have dots in rows while other fins are colourless. The caudal fin base has a distinct blackish bar.
Size
Reaches 89.0 mm standard length.
Distribution
Endemic to Sistan.
Zoogeography
Nalbant and Bianco (1998) consider this species to be an epigean form of the blind cave fish P. smithi. The differences are in head shape and mouth and lip morphology, apart from the eyes and
pigment loss typical of ipogean P. smithi.
Habitat
Details are unknown.
Age and growth
Unknown.
Food
Unknown.
Reproduction
Unknown.
Parasites and predators
Unknown.
Economic importance
None.
Conservation
Population trends and numbers unknown.
Further work
More collections are needed to record information on biology and distribution.
Sources
Type material: The holotype ((IZA 7838)) and paratypes (IZA 7839) of Paracobitis vignai, see above. + ?CMNFI paratypes
Genus Schistura
McClelland, 1838
Schistura alta
Nalbant and Bianco, 1998
Described from "Afghanistan, Kajkai, Helmand river drainage, north east of Girisk". No Iranian record.
Schistura baluchiorum
(Zugmayer, 1912)
Possibly a synonym of S. bampurensis. The type locality is Panjgur on the Rakhshan River of the Hamun-i Mashkel basin in Pakistani Baluchistan and it is also recorded from Afghanistan
in the Helmand River drainage. A cotype is in the Naturhistorisches Museum Wien
under NMW 19851 and is 46.0 mm standard length. Not recorded from Iran by specimens although Abdoli (2000) reports it from the Simish River and a river just north of it, both in the Mashkel basin.
Schistura bampurensis
(Nikol'skii, 1899)
Common names
sagmahi-ye Bampur.
[Bampur loach]
Systematics
Publication date is given as 1900 in Berg (1949) and Bănărescu and Nalbant (1967). This may be correct if the volume appeared late as the volume of the publication is for the year 1899; but
note that a footnote and the plate both bear the year 1899.
Nemacheilus baluchiorum Zugmayer, 1912 is possibly a synonym (Berg (1949) places this species in synonymy with Nemacheilus montanus - see below). Bănărescu and Nalbant (1967)
and Nalbant and Bianco (1998) place S. bampurensis in the subgenus or genus Schistura.? read description carefully and comment
Berg (1949) placed S. bampurensis in Nemacheilus montanus (McClelland, 1839) but Bănărescu and Nalbant (1967) recognise bampurensis as distinct on its incomplete lateral
line, focal zone of scales larger, dorsal fin positioned more anteriorly, deeper body, and colour pattern without regular bands (Bănărescu and Nalbant (1967: fig 12) for three pattern varieties).
Observations were made by me on the faded syntypes of N. montanus from Simla, 62.8-68.7 mm standard length (BM(NH) 1860.3.19:118-119)
as well as ZISP 8298, 9 specimens 25.3-51.1 mm standard length. Additional characters which distinguish bampurensis and
montanus are as follows. The preorbital process is very strongly developed in N. montanus, being almost as deep as the eye and extending almost an eye length below the lower orbit margin,
extending almost twice the distance of the process in bampurensis types
and being less curved and close under the eye. N. montanus has a slight but obvious keel on the back before the caudal fin while bampurensis are humped there but usually not keeled. The
caudal fin is dark at the base in montanus, not so in bampurensis or not as solid, wide and dark. The flank bars are oblique with the top forward in contrast to
bampurensis, and are less numerous than in bampurensis (5-10
versus 11-22 total, from under dorsal fin insertion to caudal fin but
excluding any caudal fin base bar). N. montanus types have faded bars but
are clearly fewer.
The syntypes of Nemacheilus bampurensis are in the Zoological Institute, St. Petersburg under catalogue numbers ZISP 11698 and 11699 at the localities, dates and number of specimens in Latin as
follows respectively:- "Kjagur prope urb. Bazman. 4. VII (6)" and "Kaskin prope urb. Bazman. 6.VII (4)" (Nikol'skii, 1899). Berg (1949) gives both these localities as between Bazman
and Bampur. However, ZISP 11698 comprises 9 specimens, 35.1-44.6 mm standard length and ZISP 11699 comprises 4 specimens not listed as types on the jar, 36.8-44.5 mm standard length.
Key characters
The male has a characteristic, moveable protuberance directed downward on the preorbital bone at the antero-ventral corner of the eye. It lies close to the eye, extends slightly below the lower orbit,
and curves partly around the orbit.
Morphology
Dorsal fin with 2-3 unbranched and 6-7 branched rays, anal fin with 2-3 unbranched and 4-5 branched rays. Pelvic fin branched rays 6-7. Lateral line incomplete, ending in front of the dorsal fin level.
Scales well-developed but the anterior third to a quarter of the body is scaleless. The posterior nostril is ovoid, slanting postero-dorsally. Barbels are large and the third pair is usually the largest
although in some fish the second pair is the largest (Saadati, 1977). The lower lip is divided, lips are corrugated, and the upper jaw process is rounded, overlapping the lower one. There is a fleshy
pelvic axillary process. Caudal fin slightly emarginate.
The type series (ZISP 11698) has dorsal fin branched rays 6(3) or 7(6); anal fin branched rays 4(1) or 5(8); pectoral fin branched rays 9(8) or 10(1); pelvic fin branched rays 6(2) or 7(7); and flank
bars 14(2), 15(3), 17(1), 19(2) or 22(1).
Meristic counts for Iranian material:- Dorsal fin branched rays 6(3) or 7(73), anal fin branched rays 4(1) or usually 5, pectoral fin branched rays 8(2), 9(59) or 10 (10), pelvic fin branched rays 6(7),
7(51) or 8(2), and flank bars 10(1), 11(7), 12(6), 13(12), 14(6), 15(8), 16(3), 17(1), 18(2), 19(2) and 22(1).
Sexual dimorphism
See above under Key characters. Males also have tubercles on the pectoral fin rays and on the operculum (see figure in Berg (1949)). The first branched pectoral fin ray is greatly expanded,
2-3 times broader than the second ray, which itself may be expanded a little.
Colour
Body yellowish to a light olive-green with 9-18 dark, brownish or chestnut-brown bands. The caudal fin has 3-4 dark wavy bars and a bar at its base, the dorsal fin 2-3 dark bars and a black spot at the
anterior fin base. Fins are a light orange or pinkish, particularly the caudal fin.
Size
Reaches 5.3 cm.
Distribution
Berg (1949) and Abdoli (2000) record this species from the Lut basin without specific localities, questionably from the Tigris River basin (presumably based on Bănărescu
and Nalbant (1967), see below), the middle and lower Bampur and Halil rivers of the Jaz Murian basin, and the Sarbaz and Nikshahr rivers of the eastern Makran.
Bănărescu and Nalbant (1967) report this species from Shapur, 12 km north of Kazerun and from Shah Bazan on a tributary of the Ab-i-Diz, and "probably most of Iran". This
seemed inherently unlikely as the type locality is in Baluchestan and the material
was later described as a new species, S. nielseni q.v.
Zoogeography
See family account.
Habitat
Unknown.
Age and growth
Unknown.
Food
Unknown.
Reproduction
A female measuring 4.8 cm and caught in late February carried fairly well-developed eggs (Berg, 1949).
Parasites and predators
Unknown.
Econmic importance
None.
Conservation
This species is reported from several localities in Baluchestan, including those remote from human influence, and does not seem to be in any danger.
Further work
The biology of this species needs to be studied.
Sources
Type material: Syntypes of Nemacheilus bampurensis (ZISP 11698 and 11699), see above.
Iranian material: CMNFI 1979-0312, 14, 24.9-41.5 mm standard length, Baluchestan, Bampur River 8 km west of Iranshahr (27º11'N, 60º36'E);
CMNFI 1979-0313, 5, 31.1-39.9 mm standard length, Baluchestan, Bampur River at Bangharabad (27º20'N, 60º46'E);
CMNFI 1979-0315, 17, 20.0-44.8 mm standard length, Baluchestan, Bampur River 2 km north of Karevandar (27º51'N, 60º46'E);
CMNFI 1979-0317, 28, 19.9-45.8 mm standard length, Baluchestan, Sarbaz River at Bondan (26º35'N, 61º13'E);
CMNFI 1979-0318, 1, 23.8 mm standard length, Baluchestan, Sarbaz River at Huvar (26º09'N, 61º27'E);
CMNFI 1979-0323, 5, 20.7-31.4 mm standard length, Baluchestan, Sarbaz River (ca. 26º26'N, ca. 61º16'E);
CMNFI 1979-0326, 12, 19.3-35.0 mm standard length, Baluchestan, stream in Oghin River drainage (ca. 26º35'N, ca. 60º02'E);
CMNFI 1979-0327, 10, 21.2-37.4 mm standard length, Baluchestan, stream in Nikshahr River drainage (26º32'N, 59º57'E);
CMNFI 1979-0329, 14, 21.1-33.4 mm standard length, Baluchestan, stream at Zaminbandan (27º02'N, 61º20'E);
CMNFI 2007-0045, 6, 28.8-39.2 mm standard length, Kerman, Kharan River drainage at Baft (29º14'N, 56º38'E)checkID
Schistura chrysicristinae
Nalbant, 1998
Described from the Tigris River basin in Turkey but no Iranian record.
Schistura cristata
(Berg, 1898)
Common names
sagmahi-ye Torkomani
or Turkmeny (= Turkmenian crested loach), sagmahi-ye kakoldar-e Torkomani.
[Turkmenskii grebenchatyi golets or Turkmenian crested loach in Russian].
Systematics
This species was described under Nemacheilus in Latin from "Habitat in flum. Tedschent, prope Aschabad, in provincia Transcaspica". The type locality is presumably the Tedzhen River
in Turkmenistan although Ashkhabad is not on the Tedzhen River. Berg (1948-1949) notes "not in the Tedzhen!". Syntypes are reported to be in the Zoological Museum of Moscow State University
(MMSU) by Eschmeyer et al. (1996).
Placed in the taxon Paracobitis by Bănărescu and Nalbant (1967) and later in Schistura by Bănărescu and Nalbant (1995) and by Nalbant and Bianco (1998).
Key characters
The dorsal fin branched ray count of 8 distinguishes this crested loach from other crested loaches in northeast Iran and adjacent regions. In addition the crest, or adipose fin, is shorter and thicker
than in P. malapterura.
Morphology
Dorsal fin unbranched rays 2-6 (assumed to be usually 3) and branched rays 7-9, modally 8, anal fin unbranched rays 2-4, usually 3, and branched rays 5, pectoral fin branched rays 8-11,
usually 9-10, and
pelvic rays 6-8, usually 7. The dorsal fin origin lies midway between the snout tip and caudal base or nearer the caudal base. There is a fleshy pelvic axillary process. Caudal fin slightly emarginate in
Turkmenistan but Hari Rud fish have a conspicuous fork. The two lobes of the caudal fin may be equal or either may be longer. The lobes are pointed or rounded. The dorsal adipose fin or crest begins
shortly in front of the anal fin origin level and reaches the root of the caudal fin. There is a small gap between the dorsal fin insertion and the origin of the crest, and the depressed dorsal fin
partially occupies this gap and the slight rise of the crest origin. It is strongly developed, high and thick. Large fish have scales posteriorly on the body. Scales are small, oblong and widely separated.
Bănărescu and Nalbant (1967) did not find scales on fish from the Harirud (confirmed for these fish (ZMUC P 2798, 2799, 27100, a fourth specimen P 2797 is lost; these catalogue numbers corrected
from Bănărescu and Nalbant (1967) where incorrect; 63.1-68.3 mm standard length) from Obeh, Afghanistan; and not found on 3 fish, 38.1-60.9 mm standard length from Sarakhs on the Hari Rud) and
this population may be distinct. The lateral line extends nearly to the caudal base. Caudal peduncle short, 5-6 times in standard length (6.1-6.9 for 3 Iranian fish, 38.1-60.9 mm standard length). Lips
are thick and furrowed, the upper lip with a slight median gap and the lower lip widely interrupted. The dentiform process on the upper jaw is weakly developed. The anterior nostril has a large flap
developed posteriorly and postero-dorsally. Large fish have bulging cheeks. The posterior part of the intestine is straight (Bănărescu and Nalbant, 1967) or with a single loop (Bănărescu
and Nalbant, 1995).
Meristics for Iranian specimens:- dorsal fin branched rays 8(4), anal fin branched rays 5(4), pectoral fin branched rays 9(2), 10(1) or 11(1); and pelvic fin branched rays 7(4).
Sexual dimorphism
Unknown.
Colour
Somewhat similar to P. malapterura but with a dark spot at the anterior base of the dorsal fin, on the unbranched and first branched rays. A similar spot may be present at the anterior base of
the anal fin on the first two rays. The anterior part of the body is dark and the posterior half
(from the dorsal fin insertion to the tail base excluding any bar on the caudal
fin rays) has 4-8 broad, brownish bands, separated by narrower light bands and reaching close to or to the ventral
part of the body. Some smaller fish have anterior bands on the flank, the total number of bands reaching
as high as 17. Bands vary in size from equal to twice the width of the pale interspaces. The last 3-4 bands
extend onto the adipose fin. There is also a much darker and narrower band at the caudal base. Bănărescu and Nalbant (1995: Fig. 11A) illustrate a fish where this last band is only developed on
the lower half of the caudal peduncle. The bar may also be composed of two blotches above and below the flank midline plus blotches on the bases of the outermost caudal rays both dorsally and ventrally.
All fins have thin bands comprised of spots irregularly lined up on the fin rays. The caudal fin may have three such bands while this fin and others may have no clear bands. Some fish have pigment on rays
of the dorsal fin almost forming a single broad band extending from mid-fin half way towards the margin. There may be a second smaller spot on the last unbranched dorsal fin ray above the
one on the anterior base.
Size
Attains 8 cm.
Distribution
Found in streams on the northern slope of the Kopetdag, Turkmenistan. Some of these streams presumably have headwaters in Iran and the species may be found there although this has yet to be
confirmed by specimens. Also reported from the drainage of the Tedzhen River in Afghanistan which forms part of the Iran-Afghanistan border as the Hari Rud or Hari River (Bănărescu and Nalbant,
1967). This species is confirmed for Iran from Sarakhs on the Hari Rud, and probably the Kashaf River, a Hari River tributary (Abdoli, 2000).
A record from Lake Topiatan in the Uzboi River drainage in Turkmenistan north of the Iranian border mentioned in Nikol'skii (1947) is housed at the Zoological Institute, St. Petersburg (ZISP
25788). Berg (1948-1949) corrects the locality as the Sumbar River, an Atrak River tributary in the Caspian Sea basin. This specimen was examined by me and it is not this species but P. malapterura.
Zoogeography
Bănărescu and Nalbant (1967) consider that the closest relative of this species is Nemacheilus tigris (sic) from the Tigris-Euphrates basin rather than other
crested loaches such as P. malapterura and P. rhadinaea found in neighbouring river systems. Note that Barbatula tigris was described from Aleppo (= Haleb, Syria) and
its occurrence in the Tigris-Euphrates basin is in question (see family account).
Habitat
A rheophilic species but further details of habitat preferences are unknown.
Age and growth
Unknown.
Food
Gut contents of one fish, 60.9 mm standard length, from the Hari Rud are chironomid larvae.
Reproduction
Unknown.
Parasites and predators
Unknown.
Economic importance
None.
Conservation
Population numbers or trends are unknown.
Further work
More collections are needed to record information on biology and distribution.
Sources
Iranian material: BWC 97-3, 3, 38.1-60.9 mm standard length, Khorasan, Hari River at Sarakhs (?);
BM(NH) 1914.1.1:32, 1, 54.5 mm standard length, Khorasan, Kashaf River (no other locality data).
Comparative material: SMF 17133, 2, 34.4-98.3 mm standard length, Afghanistan, Hari River near Herat (34º21'N, 62º14'E).
Schistura kessleri
(Günther, 1889)
Common names
sagmahi-ye Bejestan, sagmahi-ye Kessler.
[golets kesslera or Kessler's loach in Russian; sundali in Pakistan].
Systematics
Nemacheilus prashari Hora, 1933 is possibly a synonym, along with its subspecies (q.v.). Banarescu and Mirza (1965) have comparisons of Nemacheilus lindbergi (which is later
regarded as a subspecies of Nemacheilus (= Schistura) prashari, q.v.) with S. kessleri where most characters overlap in varying degrees. Bănărescu
and Nalbant (1967) place S. kessleri in the subgenus Schistura and Nalbant and Bianco (1998) place it in the genus Schistura. Berg (1949) refers S. prashari to a subspecies of
S. kessleri.
Nemacheilus kessleri turcomanus Nikol'skii, 1947 is reported from Turkmenistan east of the Iranian border in the Murgab River drainage (Kushk River near Kushk). Bănărescu and Nalbant
(1967) consider that the differences are too slight to warrant a separate subspecies.
Berg (1948-1949) considered S. kessleri to be close to S. sargadensis, differing in having the snout slanting steeply in front of the eyes (rounded in sargadensis - this is
generally true but exceptions occur with sharply downturned snouts in sargadensis examined by me), dorsal origin midway between the snout tip and the caudal fin base (further back in
sargadensis - but see below, same in both species; and in a series of sargadensis of varying size small fish have a longer predorsal distance than dorsal origin to caudal base distance, in
large fish a shorter predorsal distance, and in intermediate-sized fish an about equal predorsal distance, so this character appears to be highly variable and unreliable for separating
these species), rudimentary caudal peduncle crest (weak to clearly pronounced crest - ?check on my sargadensis), fewer and less sharply pronounced flank bars (10-12 total, broad bars in kessleri
seen by me while sargadensis has 13 or more thinner bars - ?check on my sargadensis), longer intestine (?), and pelvic fin origin just behind the level of the dorsal fin origin (under dorsal fin
origin or slightly in advance - kessleri types seen by me had the pelvic fin origin almost exactly under the dorsal fin origin). Generally S. sargadensis agrees with the description of
S. kessleri except for pigmentation (?I need to run type measurements I have against sargadensis noting that Ghazni fish may be a different species and comparing gut length/shape and bladder
capsule (see Mirza et al. (1981)).
Nemacheilus kessleri was described from Nushki in the Pishin Lora River basin of Afghanistan (Menon, 1987). Four syntypes are in the Natural History Museum, London (BM(NH) 1886.9.21:177-180,
38.3-48.4 mm standard length) and 4 syntypes (now 3) are in the Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta (ZSI 11487-11490) (Eschmeyer et al., 1996). The holotype of Nemacheilus kessleri turcomanus
is in the Zoological Museum of Moscow State University (MMSU P.5734) with apparently a paratype under MMSU P.5734 and another paratype under MMSU P.5735 (Eschmeyer et al., 1996). The
Zoological Museum of Moscow University (ZMMU; their acronym) has 3 specimens under P-5734 and 1 specimen under P-5735, all syntypes (Pavlinov and Borissenko, 2001).
Key characters
Characterised by Menon (1987) as a member of the subgenus Schistura with 7 branched dorsal fin rays, no scales, forked caudal fin, short lateral line not reaching mid-body and no sexual
dimorphism, and additionally by and Mirza et al. (1981) and Bănărescu and Nalbant (1995) as a member of the genus Schistura part of the kessleri-lindbergi group with the
above characters and also small size, rather compressed head, emarginate or slightly forked caudal fin and a reduced dentiform process.
Morphology
Dorsal fin unbranched rays 2-3, branched rays 7, anal fin unbranched rays 2-3, branched rays 5, pectoral fin branched rays 8-11, pelvic fin branched rays 6-7,
usually 7. Dorsal fin origin midway between the
nostrils and the caudal fin base according to Berg (1948-1949) but the types examined by me clearly have the dorsal fin origin closer to the snout (predorsal distance when stepped back from dorsal fin
origin overlaps the rays of the caudal fin). Scales are absent. The lateral line ends under the dorsal fin (above the tip of the pectoral fin in Menon (1987) ? check on fish, Menon quote is correct). No
adipose fin but a rudimentary crest may be evident. Caudal fin slightly emarginate to quite deeply forked. Pelvic fin origin somewhat behind the level of the dorsal fin origin. The snout is blunt; in the
types it falls gently at the nostrils in 3 fish, abruptly in 1 fish; and in 3 fish from Ghazni, Afghanistan abruptly in 2 fish and less so in the third, all apparently independent of size. Both lips are
fringed, the upper with a slight interruption, the lower with a wide interruption. The dentiform process is reduced (Berg (1949), well-developed in Menon (1987) reduced in Ban and Nal 1995 ? check on
fish). Barbels are variably developed or absent in some individuals, a condition illustrated by Hora (1933). The posterior part of the intestine has a single loop.
Sexual dimorphism
There is no sexual dimorphism.
Colour
The back is crossed by 10-12 irregular, brownish bands. There is a dark spot at the base of the 3 anteriormost dorsal fin rays and there are 1-2 bands composed of small spots on the distal part of the
fin. The anal fin may have an anterior basal spot. There is a narrow blackish band at the caudal fin base and 2 narrower bands on the fin itself. The sides of the head are minutely spotted.
Bănărescu and Nalbant (1967) consider that the fish reported by Berg (1949: fig. 54) from Kelat Margh in Neh-i-Bendan do not have the typical colour pattern of this species. Berg (1949) describes
6-8 chestnut-brown bars on the posterior part of the body, none anteriorly.
Size
Reaches 8.4 cm.
Distribution
Found from the Lora River basin of Pakistan through Afghanistan to the Murgab River basin of Turkmenistan and in eastern Iran. For Iran, Abdoli (2000) lists middle and upper Kashaf River of the Tedzhen
River basin, questionably in the Bejestan basin, and in the Simish and Mashkid rivers, and river north of them in the Mashkid River basin. Nalbant and Bianco (1998) also cite the Mashkel Lake, northern
Sistan.
Zoogeography
See family account.
Habitat
Unknown.
Age and growth
Unknown.
Food
Unknown.
Reproduction
Unknown.
Parasites and predators
Unknown.
Economic importance
None.
Conservation
?
Further work
?
Sources
Type material: Syntypes of Nemacheilus kessleri (BM(NH) 1886.9.21:177-180), see above.
Comparative material: BM(NH) 1944.4.1:7-9, 3, 42.0-57.6 mm standard length, Afghanistan, Ghazni (?).
Schistura lindbergi
(Banarescu and Mirza, 1965)
Found in the Mashkel (= Mashkid) River basin of Pakistan on the southeastern border of Iran (see S. prashari for further discussion). This species was described from a rivulet connected to the
drainage of the Farah River, Siaw, between Farah and Dilaram, Afghanistan. No Iranian record although Nalbant and Bianco (1998) record a specimen from near the Iranian border in the "Mashkel Lake
system". Originally described in the genus Noemacheilus.
Schistura namiri
(Krupp and Schneider, 1991)
Recorded from the Tigris River basin in Turkey by Nalbant (1998) but no Iranian record. Originally described in the genus Nemacheilus.
Schistura nielseni
Nalbant and Bianco, 1998
Common names
sagmahi-ye Nielsen.
[Nielsen's loach].
Systematics
Note that P 27110 (33.7 mm SL, my measurement here and below) "Shah Bazan, W. Iran, 16. IV. 1937. E. Kaiser" is listed as the holotype in the Zoological Museum, University of Copenhagen
(ZMUC), not 27109 as in the original, published description (observed in 1999). The Shah Bazar locality in the description is presumably a misprint for Shah Bazan. Paratypes are 27109 (25.8 mm SL) from
"Shah Bazan..." etc as above (probably reversed with the holotype), and 27105 "lok 44" (30.7 mm SL), 27106 "lok 54" (12.7 mm SL), 27107 "lok 54" (29.5 mm SL),
27117 "lok 54" (37.3 mm SL) from "Shapur, 15.03.1937. E. Kaiser. W. Iran". The published description gives the locality of Shapur as "12 km north-west of Kazerun".
The size of one paratype (12.7 mm) is smaller than any cited in the type description. The catalogue number of one fish in a drawing in the original description (i.e. 27108) is not in that description
nor in jars in ZMUC. There has evidently been some confusion over the type series.
Named for Dr. Jorgen G. Nielsen, Department of Ichthyology, Zoological Museum, University of Copenhagen.
This species was previously reported as Nemacheilus bampurensis by Bănărescu and Nalbant (1967) based on this type series.
Key characters
This species has a relatively short body with a short head and blunt snout. The lateral line is incomplete ending just anterior to the dorsal fin origin. Scales have a large, eccentric focus. The
caudal fin is distinctly emarginate. The body is yellowish with 7-16 dusky brown bars. The dorsal fin has 2 unbranched and 7 branched rays, the anal fin 2 unbranched and 5 branched rays, the pectoral fin
has 1 unbranched and 9 branched rays and the pelvic fin has 1 unbranched and 7 branched rays.
Morphology
Dorsal fin branched rays 7(20), anal fin branched rays 5(20), pectoral fin branched rays 7(19) or 8(1) and pelvic fin rays 7(1), 8(3), 9(15) or 10(1) based on my collection. Meristics from type series
dorsal fin branched rays 7(5), anal fin branched rays 5(5), pectoral fin branched rays 9(4), 10(1), pelvic fin branched rays 6(1), 7(4), and vertebrae 33(1), 34(4), 35(1). The body is compressed,
especially posteriorly. The eyes are small and positioned in the middle or anterior portion of the head. The mouth is slightly arched and the upper jaw has a reduced processus dentiformis. Lips are
slightly furrowed and the mental lobes are reduced. The maxillo-mandibular barbels are the longest. The nostrils are near the eyes with a relatively long tube on the anterior opening. The dorsal fin
origin is at the middle of the body or slightly posterior. The pelvic fin insertion is just below the dorsal fin origin. The caudal fin is emarginate or slightly forked with rounded lobes. The anterior
part of the body is scaleless. The stomach is syphonal and there is a single intestine loop. The gas bladder capsule has two globular chambers connected by a relatively long duct.
See BWC00-8 for more details on colour and sexual dimorphism and general description ?
Sexual dimorphism
A 37.3 mm standard length specimen from the type series (ZMUC 27117) has the first pectoral fin branched ray broadened with wide band of tubercles and rays 2-4 decreasingly tuberculate. This male has
a preorbital prolongation. Paratype ZMUC 27105 has tubercles on up to 6 branched rays of the pectoral fin in broad bands, gradually decreasing in extent on more medial rays.
Colour
The head and body are yellowish, darker and more intense along the upper flank. Bars on the body are sometimes irregular or interrupted and number 7-17. The caudal fin has a bar at its base. The
anterior dorsal fin base has a round dark spot.
Size
Reaches 54.9 mm total length and 45.0 mm standard length.
Distribution
This species is endemic to Iran, known from the Tigris River and Gulf basins as in the type description cited above (and my fish?)
Zoogeography
Nalbant and Bianco (1998) regard this species as the westernmost member of the genus Schistura.
See also family account.
Habitat
Unknown.
Age and growth
Unknown.
Food
Unknown.
Reproduction
Unknown.
Parasites and predators
Unknown.
Economic importance
None.
Conservation
Population trends and numbers unknown.
Further work
More collections are needed to record information on biology and distribution.
Sources
Type material: The holotype (ZMUC P 27110) and paratypes (ZMUC P 27105, 27106, 27107, 27109, 27117) of Schistura nielseni, see above and note possible confusion in numbers.
Iranian material: BWC 00-8, 54, 27.5-45.0 mm standard length, ?
All fish are badly faded and can't compare with drawings in original description.
Compare measurements of snout, interorbital and HL from Bănărescu and Nalbant (1967) and Nalbant and Bianco (1998) with my Khuzestan fish - snout and interorbital appear different from my
cf. tigris fish NEED to check again with my 2000 material from Khuzestan - see counts e.g.
Schistura prashari
(Hora, 1933)
Reported from the Mashkel (= Mashkid) River basin of Pakistan on the southeastern border of Iran and from the Farah River basin in the Sistan drainage of Afghanistan as Nemacheilus prashari
lindbergi Banarescu and Mirza, 1965 (or as a distinct species, lindbergi, in Schistura or Nemacheilus in Mirza, Nalbant and Banarescu (1981) and Menon (1987)) and from the
Helmand River basin in the Sistan drainage of Afghanistan as Nemacheilus prashari haarlovi Bănărescu and Nalbant, 1967 (Banarescu and Mirza, 1965; Bănărescu and Nalbant, 1967;
Mirza, Bănărescu and Nalbant, 1969; Coad, 1981c; Mirza, Nalbant and Banarescu, 1981). Possibly a synonym of S. kessleri as suggested by Berg (1949). No Iranian record.
Schistura sargadensis
(Nikol'skii, 1899)
Common names
sagmahi-ye Sarhad.
[Turkmenskii golets or Turkmen loach in Russian; perhaps Sarhadd loach should be used in English, see below].
Systematics
The syntypes of Nemacheilus sargadensis are in the Zoological Institute, St. Petersburg under catalogue number ZISP 11700 with locality data in Latin as "Sija-Rischan in sargado. 20.VIII
(6)" (Nikol'skii, 1899) and in Russian in Berg (1949) "Zia-rishan, Province of Sarhad in Kerman, S.W. Iran, border with Beluchistan, not far from Kuh-e Taftan volcano, 1 IX 1898, N.
Zarudnyi". The catalogue data in ZISP give the date as 20.VIII. There are 31 fish, 31.0-53.7 mm standard length, in rather poor shape, some stained dark brown, others uniformally decoloured or drab.
Sarhad is the "frontier" or "land at the upper boundary", an area of plains or broad valleys and isolated mountains around Khash, for example, and a term used generally for the
mountainous plateau of Baluchestan: Saadati's (1977) statement that the Sarhad is unlocatable is in error.
Nemacheilus turcmenicus Berg, 1932 is described from "einem Bache unweit von der Eisenbahnstation Gjaurs in Turkmenistan (Transkaspien)" near the Iranian border. Gyaurs
train station is at 37°44'N, 58°45'E. Three syntypes, 39-41 mm total length, are in ZISP 11064. Berg (1948-1949) synonymises turcmenicus with sargadensis but Bănărescu
and Nalbant (1967) consider it to be a valid subspecies, adding a third, paludani, from the Kabul River drainage of Afghanistan. Later Mirza, Nalbant and Banarescu (1981) separate paludani
as a distinct species in a different species group from S. sargadensis, since S. sargadensis has scales, an almost forked caudal fin, a feeble dentiform process and irregular bars on the
flank, all in contrast to S. paludani.
Berg (1948-1949; 1949) and Saadati (1977) consider this species to be close to S. kessleri (q.v.), possibly a synonym. Nalbant and Bianco (1998) place this species in the genus
Schistura.
Key characters
The caudal peduncle is deeper than in Schistura bampurensis and it
lacks the protuberance under the eye in males.
Morphology
Dorsal fin with 2-5 unbranched and 6-8 branched rays, anal fin with 2-3 unbranched and 4-6, usually 5, branched rays, pectoral fin branched rays 7-10, and pelvic fin branched rays 6-7 for S.
sargadensis turcmenica (Berg, 1932a; 1948-1949; Nikolaev, 1993). Body scaleless (scaled according to Mirza, Nalbant and Banarescu (1981) based on fish from the Kul River, Hormozgan ? check on my fish
as this would distinguish from kessleri). Caudal fin moderately emarginate (deeply emarginate, almost forked in Mirza, Nalbant and Banarescu (1981)). Caudal peduncle depth 1.6-2.2 in caudal peduncle
length. Dorsal fin origin nearer caudal base than snout tip and slightly behind the pelvic fin origin. A dorsal adipose fin may be present or absent. Dentiform process on upper jaw, if present,
rudimentary.
Meristics for Iranian specimens:- branched dorsal fin rays 6(1) or 7(105), anal fin branched rays 5(106), pectoral fin branched rays 9(11), 10(84) or 11(11), pelvic fin branched rays 6(1), 7(94) and
8(11), and flank bars 11(12), 12(8), 13(13), 14(11), 15(8), 16(5), 17(5) or 18(5).
Sexual dimorphism
Unknown.
Colour
Body colour is brown backed with greenish tinges or grey, with 13-14 dark bands, in some fish hardly visible (and irregular in form according to Mirza, Nalbant and Banarescu (1981)). The bands are
broad, slightly broader than the interspaces. A dark stripe runs along the midline of the back. The caudal fin has 2 dark bars and the dorsal fin an anterior dark spot at its base. A dark band is present
at the caudal base. Young fish have a row of dark speckles along the lateral line.
Size
Reaches 6.5 cm.
Distribution
Found in the streams of the northern slope of the Kopetdag in Turkmenistan as Nemacheilus sargadensis turcmenicus, possibly extending into northern Iran. In southern Iran it is found in the
Hormozgan, Hamun-e Jaz Murian, Hamun-e Mashkid and Makran basins (Nalbant and Bianco, 1998).
Zoogeography
See family account.
Habitat
Unknown.
Age and growth
Maximum age in the subspecies turcmenica does not exceed 1.5 years (Nikolaev, 1993).
Food
Important food items in the subspecies turcmenica are larval mayflies, caddis flies, chironomids, dragonflies and detritus (Nikolaev, 1993).
Reproduction
Eggs in the subspecies turcmenica reach 1.24 mm in diameter (Nikolaev, 1993).
Parasites and predators
Unknown.
Economic importance
None.
Conservation
?
Further work
?
Sources
Type material: Syntypes of Nemacheilus sargadensis (ZISP 11700), see above.
Iranian material: CMNFI 1979-0210, 37, 21.0-35.4 mm standard length, Kerman, river west of Istor (29º21'N, 56º08'E);
CMNFI 1979-0215, 14, 27.7-51.7 mm standard length, Kerman, Kharan River drainage at Baft (29º14'N, 56º37'E);
CMNFI 1979-0217, 6, 30.1-41.8 mm standard length, Kerman, Kharan River drainage (ca. 28º59'30"N, ca. 56º51'30"E);
CMNFI 1979-0218, 8, 32.8-47.8 mm standard length, Kerman, Kharan River drainage (28º53'N, 56º55'E);
CMNFI 1979-0220, 1, 37.3 mm standard length, Kerman, jube 2 km south of Jiroft (28º39'N, 57º43'E);
CMNFI 1979-0221, 19, 24.3-46.8 mm standard length, Kerman, river in Halil River drainage (28º51'N, 57º52'E);
CMNFI 1979-0308, 11, 22.2-40.1 mm standard length, Kerman, river 44 km from Baft (29º02'N, 56º50'E);
CMNFI 1979-0338, 68, ? mm standard length, Baluchestan, Tahlab River drainage 8 km from Mirjaveh (28º58'N, 61º24'E);
CMNFI 1979-0339, 5, ? mm standard length, Baluchestan, Tahlab River drainage 16 km from Mirjaveh (28º56'30"N, 61º21'E);
CMNFI 1979-0340, 25, ? mm standard length, Baluchestan, jube at Ladiz (28º55'N, 61º18'E);
OSU 4270 ?
Genus Seminemacheilus
Banarescu and Nalbant, 1995
Seminemacheilus tongiorgii
Nalbant and Bianco, 1998
Common names
sagmahi-ye Hormoz.
[Hormoz loach].
Systematics
This species is named for Professor Paolo Tongiorgi, University of Modena. The holotype measures 23.7 mm standard length and is from " large water spring near Darab town, Kul river
basin", collected on 2 June 1976 by P. G. Bianco and is stored in the Department of Zoology, University of Naples (IZA 801 but not located in a 2002 visit by me). One paratype, 20.0 mm standard
length, is from the same locality (Institutul Stiinte Biologice, Bucharest, ISBB uncatalogued). It differs from the Anatolian species S. lendlii (Hankó 1925) mostly by colour pattern and possession
of scales.
Key characters
This species has a short and deep body. The mid-flank has a row of small scales. Esmaeili and Niknejad (2006-2007) give scanning electron micrographs of the scales along with a description.The
processus dentiformis is absent. The lips are furrowed, particularly the lower lip. The gas bladder capsules are strongly united. The dorsal fin has 3 unbranched and 8 branched rays, the anal fin has 3
unbranched and 5 branched rays, the pectoral fin has 2 unbranched and 9 branched rays and the pelvic fin has 1 unbranched and 6 branched rays.
Morphology
The head is wide with large eyes and nostrils just anterior to the eyes. The mouth is arched and the lower lip has large lobules but the mental lobes are reduced. The gut has a short oesophagus and the
stomach and intestine have one loop. The gas bladder capsule valves are proximal. The lateral line is short and does not extend posterior to the level of the pectoral fin. The body is almost
entirely scaleless except for minute scales on mid-flank.
Sexual dimorphism
Unknown.
Colour
The overall colour is yellowish-white. There is a row of grey blotches along the mid-flank and a row of grey dots on the posterior half of the belly. All fins have grey dots except the whitish pelvics.
The peritoneum is silvery-white with scattered melanophores.
Size
Attains 59.3 mm standard length.
Distribution
Known only from Iran in the upper reaches of the Hormozgan basin near Darab.
Zoogeography
The limited distribution of this endemic and lack of information on relationships preclude zoogeographical analysis. See family account.
Habitat
Details are unknown.
Age and growth
Unknown. Esmaeili and Ebrahimi (2006) give a significant length-weight relationship based on 45 fish measuring 2.95-5.93 cm standard length. The a-value was 0.0264 and the b-value 2.904
(a b-value < 3 indicating a fish that becomes less rotund as length increases and a b-value >3 indicating a fish that becomes more rotund as length increases).
Food
Unknown.
Reproduction
Unknown.
Parasites and predators
Unknown.
Economic importance
None.
Conservation
Population trends and numbers unknown.
Further work
More collections are needed to record information on biology and distribution.
Sources
Nalbant and Bianco (1998).
Genus Triplophysa
Rendahl, 1933
Triplohysa farwelli
(Hora, 1935)
Described from the "Helmand river, Afghanistan" in the Sistan basin but without any definite locality; it may be remote from the Sistan lowlands of Iran (Hora, 1935). Originally described
under Nemacheilus. No Iranian record.
Triplophysa griffithii
(Günther, 1868)
Described erroneously as from Assam but the type locality is the Arghandab River near Kandahar in the Helmand River drainage of the Sistan basin (Hora, 1929; 1935; Bănărescu and Nalbant,
1967). Originally described in Nemachilus (sic). No Iranian record but see T. stoliczkai.
Triplophysa stoliczkai
(Steindachner, 1866)
Common names
sagmahi-ye Pamir.
[Tibetskii golets or Tibetan loach, Pamirskii golets or Pamirs loach, both in Russian; singhat in Pakistan; Stoliczka's loach].
Systematics
Often spelt stoliczkae, (e.g. in Annandale and Hora (1920)), the original spelling is Stoličkai, which becomes stoliczkai in Latin where accents on letters are not used.
This species is placed in the genus Triplophysa by Menon (1987) and Bănărescu and Nalbant (1995).
Nemacheilus akhtari Vijayalakshmanan, 1950 described from "Farakhollum, about 10 miles South of Gardan Diwar, Helmund river" (Farakhulm at 34°31'N, 68°08'E),
Afghanistan in the Sistan basin may be a synonym of Nemacheilus (= Triplophysa) griffithii (Günther, 1868) according to Bănărescu and Nalbant (1967)
or T. stoliczkai according to Prokofiev (2007). There is no Iranian record.
This is a highly variable species originally described from streams around Lake Tsumureri in Rupshu Province of western Tibet and also found in the upper reaches of such rivers as the Hwang,
Brahmaputra and Yangtse. It is reported further west from the Aral Sea basin, the upper Indus River basin, the upper Helmand River basin in Afghanistan and probably in Sistan in Iran. Prokofiev
(2007) considers the systematics of the loaches in the stoliczkai group to be the most complicated in High Asian species. Berg (1948-1949) gives a series of figures which plainly show the
variability in body form and pigmentation of this species. Such a wide distribution and variability may be indicative of several taxa being confused under this name.
Regan (1906) refers specimens from Sistan to Nemacheilus stenurus Herzenstein, 1888. Annandale and Hora (1920) consider stenurus not to be a distinct species but Hora (1922)
compares stenurus with Nemacheilus tenuis (see below) and notes that stenurus has a continuous and entire lower lip (slightly indented in ZISP 7355 examined by me -
wide interruption and greatly plicated in tenuis) and the dorsal fin origin is closer to the snout than the caudal fin base (equidistant or nearer the caudal base in tenuis).
Specimens from Sistan labelled as Nemacheilus stenurus by Regan (1906) are then misidentified T. stoliczkai according to Annandale and Hora (1920). Since N. stenurus was
described from the sources of the Yangtse Kiang in China and is a more recent name, it is probably not relevant to Iranian loaches.
Berg (1948-1949) places Nemacheilus tenuis Day, 1877 (publication dated 1876, apparently published 1877 according to Eschmeyer et al. (1996)) in stoliczkai as var. tenuis
but notes that it occurs together with the type form in the Gunt River of the Pamirs in Tadjikistan as well as in Sistan, and thereby the implication is that this variety is not a subspecies (since
subspecies do not occur together). Berg (1948-1949) also has the subspecies Nemacheilus stenurus uranoscopus Kessler, 1872 described from the Zeravshan River in Uzbekistan as possibly occurring in
the Helmand River basin, presumably the upper reaches, but he includes Nemacheilus tenuis Day under this subspecies too.
Annandale and Hora (1920) initially place Sistan specimens in Nemacheilus stoliczkai but later Hora (1922) places them in Nemacheilus tenuis. Hora (1922) restricts the name
stoliczkai to fish from the Indus River basin and considers that the various wide-ranging reports of stoliczkai refer to various other species. See also Vijayalakshmanan (1950) for
comparisons with some nominal Afghan species in the Helmand basin.
The fish from Sistan examined by Annandale and Hora (1920) and assigned to T. stoliczkai are in two forms - one with a thin caudal peduncle, the stenurus type which they do not recognise
as specifically distinct, and one with a thick caudal peduncle which they place in var. leptosoma Herzenstein, 1888 (note that varieties are not recognised by the International Code of Zoological
Nomenclature). The former has a minimum caudal peduncle depth in caudal peduncle length of 5.3-7.8, mean 6.8 based on 3 fish from a table in Annandale and Hora (1920) and the one fish seen by me, and
the latter has values of 2.9-3.6, mean 3.1 from the table in Annandale and Hora (1920). Annandale and Hora (1920) point out that this character is dimorphic but is neither related to sex nor
"race" and that gut loop development also varies but independently of the caudal peduncle character. The specimen I examined from Sistan has a stenurus form of caudal peduncle
(value 7.6), the dorsal fin origin is about equidistant between the snout tip and caudal base and so agrees with neither stenurus nor stoliczkai (see table in Vijayalakshmanan, 1950)), the
head length in standard length (4.5) falls within the limits of stoliczkai (4.2-4.8) and not stenurus (4.9-5.5) (see table in Vijayalakshmanan, 1950)), and the lip grooves resemble another
species, Nemacheilus akhtari Vijayalakshmanan, 1950, described from the Helmand River at Farakhollum about 10 miles south of Gardan Diwar in Afghanistan. The conclusion I reach here is that an
individual fish in this group of species or forms can have a mix of characters used by authors to separate and define species.
The resolution of this problem, the correct name for Sistan loaches, other than the distinctive P. rhadinaea and P. vignai, requires extensive material from the whole range of the nominal
species involved for dissection and comparison of gut shape, for analysis of sexual dimorphism and individual variability in such morphometric characters as caudal peduncle breadth and thickness and
position of the dorsal fin, as well as in determining new and, hopefully, definitive characters. Conservatively, I refer Sistan fish to stoliczkai, the oldest available name, while recognising that
tenuis may be a distinct species or subspecies and be the fish found in Sistan, or even that the fish in Sistan are an unnamed taxon or taxa. The Iranian and other material available to me does not
permit a resolution of this wide ranging problem.
Syntypes of Cobitis stoliczkai are in the Naturhistorisches Museum Wien under NMW 48436 (5 fish), NMW 48439 (1) and NMW 50477 (4).
A syntype, or at least material examined by Day, of Nemacheilus tenuis is in the Naturhistorisches Museum Wien under NMW 48477 (Eschmeyer et al., 1996).
A syntype of Nemacheilus stenurus, 135.2 mm standard length, is in the Zoological Institute, St. Petersburg, Russia under ZISP 7355. Other types are ZISP 7256 (4), 7354 (3, now 2), 7355 (1),
and BM(NH) 1891.10.7.33 (1, 64.9 mm standard length) (formerly in ZISP).
SEE Prokofiev (2007) for tenuis and stoliczkai and other data ?
Key characters
The elongate yet rounded caudal peduncle without an adipose fin distinguishes this species from P. rhadinaea and P. vignai the only other balitorids recognised in Sistan. The depth of the
caudal peduncle just behind the end of the anal fin is the same as the width.
Morphology
Dorsal fin with 2-3 unbranched and 6-9, usually 7-8, branched rays, anal fin with 2-3 unbranched and 5 branched rays, pectoral fin with 8-12 branched rays, and pelvic fin with 6-8 branched rays. Lateral
line complete and distinctive. Scales are absent. Caudal peduncle long and slender or short and deep (see above). Head length in standard length 4.0-4.8. Eye diameter in head length 4.8-5.5, mean 5.2 in
Annandale and Hora (1922) for Sistan fish (note that Day (1876; 1878) gives eye diameter as 8 in head length but Steindachner (1866) in his original description gives 5.5). Snout blunt. Barbels are
reported as the maxillary ones reaching behind the eye, the rostral ones shorter; the specimen from Sistan had the maxillary and longest rostral barbel about equal in length, the maxillary reaching back
to about mid-eye level. Lips are rugose, deeply incised and may be fimbriated. The lower lip is fimbriate and interrupted in the middle. There is a narrow, elongate post-labial groove with well-marked
ridges on each side extending back on the mid-line of the lower head (in one specimen seen by me). The pectoral fin tip is formed by the third and fourth branched rays. Dorsal fin origin nearer the snout
tip than the caudal base in Iranian specimens or equidistant while elsewhere in the range of this species it is nearer the caudal base (but dorsal origin is individually quite variable in Balitoridae).
Caudal fin slightly emarginate, lower lobe longer than upper. A well-marked groove between the anus and the anal fin is absent. The gut length is slightly longer than the fish itself with two loops.
Chromosome number is 2n=50 for fish from Kyrgyzstan (Klinkhardt et al., 1995).
Sexual dimorphism
Mature males have the first 3-6 pectoral fin rays thickened and tuberculate. A raised tuberculate area below the nostrils extends from the lips to the eye and is separated by a groove from a tuberculate
area below (see Fig. 2B in Bănărescu and Nalbant (1995)).
Colour
The flank bears irregular dark spots which may coalesce into a stripe, or is marbled dark green or black. There are dark brown saddles over the back. Fins have rows of pigment, best developed on
the dorsal and caudal.
Size
Reaches 16.5 cm.
Distribution
Found from Tibet to northern Kashmir, Turkestan and Sistan. In Iran, it is reported from the Hirmand River delta of Sistan (Annandale, 1921).
Zoogeography
See family account.
Habitat
Unknown.
Age and growth
Unknown.
Food
Unknown.
Reproduction
Unknown.
Parasites and predators
Unknown.
Economic importance
None.
Conservation
Biology and numbers are poorly known so an assessment of conservation status
cannot be made.
Further work
The biology of this species needs study.
Sources
Type material: Syntypes of Nemacheilus stenurus (ZISP 7355 and BM(NH) 1891.10.7.33), see above.
Comparative material: BM(NH) 1905.4.7:3, 1, 87.7 mm standard length, Sistan, Helmand River, collected by H. McMahon and from the Indian Museum, Calcutta (the size of this fish is at variance with the
6 specimens measured by Annandale and Hora (1920:181) but appears to be from the collections made by the Seistan Arbitration Commission of 1902-1904 and is possibly the seventh specimen referred
to in the text. This specimen has been identified as Triplophysa griffithii by S. O. Kullander and has old labels as Nemacheilus stenurus and Nemacheilus tenuis).
Genus Turcinoemacheilus
Banarescu and Nalbant, 1964
Turcinoemacheilus kosswigi
Banarescu and Nalbant, 1964
Known only from "Kapozik Kadun" in the Tigris River basin of the Hakkari region of eastern Turkey (Banarescu and Nalbant, 1964) west of Iranian Lake Orumiyeh. No Iranian record. Other locality?
Bagridae
The bagrid catfishes are found in fresh waters of Africa and Asia. Some species attain 2 m in length. There are about 18 genera and about 170 species (Nelson, 2006). Only one species is known from Iran.
This family is characterised by a scaleless body; a depressed head and rounded to compressed elongate body; short dorsal fin with a
strong, often serrated spine; a strong, serrated spine in the pectoral fin; a short to long adipose fin; anal fin short to long; caudal fin
forked or deeply emarginate; a free margin to the gill membranes over the isthmus; the anterior and posterior nostrils are well separated;
anterior nostrils tubular; mouth ventral and transverse or arched; 4 pairs of barbels with the nostril barbel on the posterior nostril,
maxillary barbels can be very long, other barbels are mandibular and mental (chin); teeth on the prevomer, premaxillaries and mandible; and
eyes often covered by skin. Maximum size is about 2 m.
These catfishes are generally nocturnal. Certain species are important food fishes and others are kept as pets in aquaria.
Genus Mystus
Scopoli, 1777
This is a catchall genus comprising numerous species in Asia. Roberts (1994) restricts the genus to 8 closely related species (see also Grant
(2004)). Only 1 species is known from Southwest Asia including Iran. A history and usage of the name Mystus is given by Jayaram and Anuradha (1984).
This genus is characterised by an elongate body, rounded anteriorly and compressed posteriorly, a short and moderately depressed head,
head smooth or rugose, an elongate cranial fontanelle extending posteriorly to the base of the occipital process and divided into
anterior and posterior portions of nearly equal length by an epiphyseal bar (Roberts, 1994), small to moderate eyes set high and
not visible from the ventral surface of the head, a free circular eyelid, a wide transverse, usually subterminal mouth, maxillary
barbels very long, jaw teeth are in villiform patches, on the lower jaw as a curved or angular band interrupted at the mid-point,
continuous and curved slightly in the upper jaw, total gill rakers 11-30, gill openings very wide and free from the isthmus, adipose fin
high and very long, caudal fin deeply forked, upper caudal lobe often much larger than lower, 37-46 vertebrae about equally divided between
abdominal and caudal ones, and branchiostegal rays 6-12.
Mystus pelusius
(Solander in Russell, 1794)
Common names
ابوزمير (abu-zummair or abu zumir, an Arabic name used in Khuzestan), mahi nish dor
(an Abadani name, from www.abadan.net/abadanidictionary.html, downloaded 4 December 2003), sag mahi (= dog fish),
گربه ماهي (= gorbeh mahi, meaning catfish), chamu.
[abu-zummair, abouz-zoumeir, abu-al-zamir, abu'l-zoumeir, zugzug in Aleppo, jahudi in Mosul, all in Arabic; Tigris mystus (Fricke et al., 2007)].
Systematics
Synonyms are Bagrus halepensis Valenciennes in Cuvier and Valenciennes, 1840 from the "Couiac, qui est la rivière d'Alep"
(= Quwayq at Aleppo, Syria) (see Bailey (1951) on the publication date), Macrones aleppensis Günther, 1864, Macrones
colvillii Günther, 1874 from "Bagdad", and Mystus misrai Anuradha, 1986 described from "Lake Antioche,
Syria". Hypselobagrus Aleppensis is a new combination by Lortet (1883). Günther (1864) proposed Macrones aleppensis on
page 75 but withdrew the name on page 431 when he realised the species was the Silurus pelusius of Solander.
No types of Silurus pelusius described from the "River Kowick" (= Quwayq) are known (Eschmeyer et al., 1996). A
syntype of Macrones aleppensis, 127.8 mm standard length, from the "R. Coic, Aleppo, Syria" is in the Natural History
Museum, London (BM(NH) 1955.6.25:1). Six syntypes of Macrones colvillii are also in London, ca. 175-234 mm standard length, from
"R. Tigris nr. Baghdad" collected by Colville (BM(NH) 1874.4.28:6-8, 1875.1.14:19-21; Roberts (1994) agrees with my
observations although Eschmeyer et al. (1996) give BM(NH) 1875.1.14:19-20 for the latter, i.e. 2 fish only).
The holotype of Mystus misrai is in the Muséum d'Histoire Naturelle, Geneva under MHNG 603.95, measuring 123.1 mm standard
length, with 1 paratype under MHNG 2231.84 measuring 117.6 mm standard length, 1 paratype in the Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta under
FF2315 and 1 specimen missing (Eschmeyer et al., 1996).
Roberts (1994) indicates that more material should be examined to compare fish with short barbels, weakly serrate dorsal spine, short
adipose fin and a highland distribution (= pelusius) while the contrasting fish are colvillii.
Key characters
The 4 pairs of barbels, a strong spine in both the dorsal and pectoral fins, elongate and strong adipose fin are distinctive. The
head tapers but is not as flattened as in Heteropneustes fossilis, and the mouth is subterminal.
Morphology
The dorsal fin spine is smooth on most of the outer edge and rough on the inner edge. Serrae can be weakly developed
or absent, or may be well developed. The dorsal fin spine has 1-4 serrae or notches at the anterior tip and 5-9 along the rear margin, apparently not
related to fish size. The pectoral spine is stronger than the dorsal spine and is serrated with 14-23 antrorse
teeth on the inner margin, the number increasing with size. The maxillary barbel extends back to the pectoral fin origin or, rarely, as far as beyond the anal fin.
Dorsal fin with 1-2 spines and 7-8, usually 7, branched rays, anal fin with 6-10 branched rays, pectoral fin with 1 spine and 7-9
branched rays and the pelvic fin with 5-6, usually 5, branched rays.
Al-Hassan and Hassan (1993) have shown asymmetry in pectoral ray and gill raker counts in samples of this species from the Shatt
al Arab, Iraq, possibly due to environmental stress. Total gill rakers 10-18 (Roberts (1994) gives 12(1), 13(7), 14(11),
15(11), 16(8), 17(4) and 18(1), reaching the second raker or further when appressed. Total vertebrae 42-46
(Roberts (1994) gives 42(10), 43(16), 44(3), 45(2) and 46(5). The gut has a large stomach followed by an intestine with about 4 loops.
In specimens examined
by me dorsal fin with 2(11) spines and 6(1) or 7(10) branched rays, anal fin with rays difficult to separate into branched and unbranched
(perhaps 4-6 unbranched and 6-10 branched rays), pectoral fin with 1(11) spine and 7(3), 8(5), 9(2) branched rays and the pelvic fin with 5(11) branched rays. Total gill rakers
12(1), 13(2), 14(2), 16(2). One specimen with only 7 gill rakers, was possibly abnormal. Total vertebrae 42(1), 43(1), 44(2) and 45(1).
Sexual dimorphism
Unknown.
Colour
Pale brown to olivaceous overall with fins and belly lighter, on a predominant dark silver. Some fish may be silvery-grey overall when
fresh. A dark shoulder spot is present. There may be a black spot at the base of the dorsal fin. The dorsal and anal fins have
melanophores on the rays and membranes and so are darker than the other fins. The margin of the adipose fin is narrowly black. The
caudal fin has a black margin. There may be 3 (sometimes 2), narrow, white stripes on the flank, one along and one each above and below the
lateral line. The stripe below the dorsal and adipose fins is narrower than the others. Barbels are whitish, somewhat darker dorsally.
Peritoneum silvery to light brown. Jayaram and Sanyal (2003) report an albino specimen from Baghdad.
Size
Reaches 171.2 mm standard length or 22.9 cm total length (Günther, 1874) but possibly to 30 cm total length (Firouz, 2005).
Distribution
Found in the Orontes, Quwayq, and Tigris-Euphrates basins. In Iran, this fish is found in the lower reaches of rivers in the Tigris River basin of Iran,
including the Jarrahi, and also the Zohreh River of the northern Gulf basin (Abdoli, 2000). Also recorded from Fars near Darab in the Rudbal River drainage which flows to
the Straits of Hormuz, possibly an accidental introduction, although Esmaeili and Coad (2005) point out that there is no evidence of fish introductions from
Khuzestan to Fars. It may simply be very rare outside the Tigris-Euphrates basin in Iran.
Zoogeography
Jayaram and Sanyal (2003) consider that Mystus is derived from an African Bagrus-like ancestor and the genus spread from west to east.
Habitat
Niazi (1976) observed this species in rivers, marshes and brackish waters in Iraq although summer kill resulted from very low water levels and increased salinity.
Age and growth
Al-Hassan et al. (1991) aged this species using eye lenses and vertebrae for a population from the Qarmat Ali River north of Basrah, Iraq. Fish
up to 20 cm total length were examined and three age groups were determined, with considerable overlap of lengths for each group. Al-Shami (1998) however
found 7 age groups (0+-6+) for the same river using vertebrae to age fish 54-223 mm total length. The highest growth was found in the first year and no
significant differences were found between males and females in growth rate. The L∞ was 225.75 mm and the length-weight relationship log W = -4.7516 +
2.8173 log L. The relative condition ranged from 0.94 in December to 1.22 in May.
Food
Roberts (1994) found eggs in the branchial chamber and stomach apparently identical with those from the ovary. Other stomach items
were fish fin pieces and cyprinid fish scales. Aquatic insects, crustaceans, detritus and plant remains are also found in stomach contents of
fish examined by me. Al-Shami (1998) found mean feeding activity and intensity in the Qarmat Ali River, Iraq to be higher in spring and summer, declining
in autumn and winter. This fish was carnivorous, taking mainly crustaceans but also insects, fishes, molluscs and aquatic plants. Hussein and Al-Shami (2001)
also reported that fish in the Garma Canal, Iraq had a diet dominated by crustaceans (the isopod Sphaeroma annandalei, amphipods, the decapod Elamenopsis
kempi, and the prawns Metapenaeus affinis and Atyaephyra desmaresti), followed by aquatic insects (chironomids, corixids and
dytiscids), fish (Alburnus sp. and Aphanius dispar), molluscs (the gastropod Lymnaea tenera euphratica) and aquatic plants. Feeding occurred
year round with a peak in May and a lowest value in November. Al-Shamma'a (2005) found shrimp and insects to form 47% by volume of the diet of this fish at
Al-Fuhoud, Hawr al Hammar, Iraq.
Reproduction
The Qarmat Akli River fish attained maturity in the first year of life with the smallest mature male 92 mm long and the smallest female 72 mm. Eggs were
laid in May and June with a fecundity range of 1156-25,833 eggs for fish 105-180 mm total length and 11.88-49.29 g in weight. Relative fecundity was 97.3-524.1 eggs/g (Al-Shami, 1998).
Parasites and predators
None reported.
Economic importance
This species is of no economic importance. Anglers may catch it on hook and line in Khuzestan but, being scaleless, it is not eaten.
Conservation
This species appears to be relatively common, although not often caught in large numbers, and its conservation status has not been assessed.
Further work
See under Systematics.
Sources
Description also based on Anuradha and Jayaram (1985) and Anuradha (1986).
Type material: See above under Macrones aleppensis (BM(NH) 1955.6.25:1) and Macrones colvillii (BM(NH) 1874.4.28:6-8, 1875.1.14:19-21).
Iranian material:- CMNFI 1979-0087, 1, 162.2 mm standard length, Khuzestan, Karun River at Ahvaz (31º19'N, 48º42'E);
CMNFI 1979-0368, 1, 75.6 mm standard length, Khuzestan, Karkheh River (32<º24'30"N, 48º09'E);
CMNFI 1991-0153, 1, 123.3 mm standard length, Khuzestan, Zohreh River (no other locality data);
CMNFI 1993-0133, 1, 152.6 mm standard length, Khuzestan (no other locality data);
BM(NH) 1905.10.14:57, 1, 140.1 mm standard length, Bushehr, Jarrahi River 140 miles northwest of Bushehr (no other locality data);
ZMH 2524, 1, 137.1 mm standard length, Kermanshah, Karasu-Gamasiab-Seymarreh (no other locality data);
ZMH 4339, 2, 100.5-100.6 mm standard length, Khuzestan, Karun River (no other locality data);
uncatalogued material, 1, 57.7 mm standard length, Fars, Cheshmeh Golabi, 15 km west of Darab (28º47'N, 54º22'E)(Esmaeili and Coad, 2005).
Comparative material:- CMNFI 1980-1036, 2, 161.0-167.8 mm standard length, Turkey, Elazig, Keban Dam near Elazig (38º41'N, 39º14'E);
CMNFI 1987-0017, 1, 156.8 mm standard length, Iraq, Hawr al Hammar (no other locality data);
BM(NH) 1912.5.2:7, 1, 172.5 m standard length, Iraq, Shatt al Arab (no other locality data);
BM(NH) 1920.3.5:5-6, 2, 95.4-101.0 mm standard length, Iraq, Basra (30º30'N, 47º47'E);
BM(NH) 1936.3.10:3, 1, 56.1 mm standard length, Iraq, Euphrates River at Nasiriyah (31º02'N, 46º16'E);
BM(NH) 1974.2.22:1781-2, 1, 52.3 mm standard length, Iraq, Khalis (33º49'N, 44º32'E);
BM(NH) 1974.2.22:1783-4, 1, 31.0 mm standard length, Iraq, Khalis (33º49'N, 44º32'E);
BM(NH) 1975.5.16:6, 1, 155.2 mm standard length, Turkey, Elazig, Euphrates River, Keban Dam Lake (no other locality data).
Siluridae
The sheatfishes are found in Europe and Asia. There are about 11
genera and about 97 species (Nelson, 2006) with 2 reported from Iran. The phylogenetic
relationships within the family are examined by Bornbusch (1995).
This family is characterised by a scaleless and elongate body; a
moderately compressed head; a non-protractile mouth; teeth on the jaws
and palate; 1-4 pairs of barbels (nasal barbels usually absent;
maxillary barbels 1-2 pairs, sometimes vestigial or absent); nostrils
separate, anterior ones tubular; 4-21 branchiostegal rays; gill
openings very wide; dorsal fin short and spineless (usually fewer than
7 rays and sometimes absent); anal fin very long (41 or more rays) and
may be confluent with the caudal fin; adipose fin absent; pectoral fin
with a spine, often serrated; and pelvic fins small to absent. The
largest species is found in Iran (Silurus glanis).
Genus Silurus
Linnaeus, 1758
These catfishes comprise about 5 species found from Europe to China and India.
This genus is characterised by an elongate body, rounded anteriorly
but compressed posteriorly; a depressed head; 2-3 pairs of barbels,
the maxillary barbels well-developed and often as long as, or longer
than, the head; a large and terminal or superior mouth; teeth in bands
on the jaws and roof of the mouth; nostrils well separated; eyes small
and not visible from the underside of the head; a very short and
spineless dorsal fin; no adipose fin; anal fin very long and united to
the rounded caudal fin; pectoral fin with a strong serrated spine; and branchiostegal
rays 12-15. The genus has been revised by Kobayakawa (1989).
Krieg et al. (1999) isolated microsatellite
loci in both S. glanis and S. triostegus and found that the
species diverged less than 20MYA and/or high levels of genomic
conservation. Krieg et al. (2000) investigated mitochondrial DNA in
S. glanis but found no consistent pattern of geographic structuring in
European populations, evidence that gene flow and migration between populations
were possible until quite recently. Their study also included S. triostegus
and the data was diagnostic for the two species.
A general Farsi name for these fishes is گربه ماهي (= gorbeh mahi, meaning cat fish).
Silurus glanis
Linnaeus, 1758
Aras River Dam, courtesy of Asghar Abdoli (measuring fish)
2.25 m, ca. 90 kg, 5 October 1994
Safid River, 2 km west of Astaneh, 4 June 1978, caught in a large dip-net
Common names
mahi-e sebili, esbele or esbeleh in Gilaki (probably
derived from sibil meaning moustache in reference to the barbels),
esbele-ye orupaiye, Urupai or Europaiye; گربه ماهي روگاهي
or gorbeh mahi rogahee, nake or naque in the Lake Orumiyeh basin, where
they are known as "whales".
[naxa, nagka or nakki in Azerbaijan; loko in Armenia; som in Russian; European catfish, sheatfish, wels,
wels catfish, Danube catfish].
Systematics
Silurus Glanis was originally described from lakes of
Europe, Sweden. A skin is a syntype in the Natural History Museum,
London under BM(NH) 1853.11.12:168 (Eschmeyer et al., 1996). An image of
this type is available at http://acsi.acnatsci.org/base/image_show_wrapper.html?target=230943. Silurus chantrei Sauvage, 1882
is possibly a synonym (see under Silurus triostegus).
Key characters
This species differs from S. triostegus by having
weaker and shorter teeth, the upper and lower jaws meet at an antero-dorsal
position (dorsal and superior position in S. triostegus),
a less serrate pectoral fin spine posteriorly, and a darker colour. Maxillary
barbel length is much longer on average, although there is some overlap. Anterior mandibular barbels are alwayslonger than
posterior mandibular barbels while in S. triostegus the posterior mandibular barbels are always longer
(Ünlü and Bozkurt, 1996).
Morphology
The lower jaw is longer than the upper. Adults have one pair of maxillary barbels and two pairs of
mandibular barbels, for a total of 6 barbels. The maxillary barbel is
much longer than the head (equal to head length in Silurus
triostegus). The pectoral fin spine is finely serrated or smooth
on its inner surface and smooth on its outer surface. Vomerine teeth
form a single broad patch, not two as in S. triostegus (Kobayakawa, 1989).
Dorsal fin branched rays 3-5, usually 4, anal fin branched rays 70-108,
pectoral rays 12-18 with 1 spine (generally higher on average than in S.
triostegus but still overlapping), and pelvic rays 1 unbranched
followed by 9-14 branched rays (Coad and Holčík,
2000; Reshetnikov, 2002). Vertebrae 70-76 and total gill rakers 9-17 (counts of 9 and 10 may be
lower arch rakers only). Total vertebrae 67-74. In specimens examined by me dorsal fin branched rays 3-4, anal
fin branched rays 83-87, pectoral rays 15-16 with 1 spine, and pelvic
rays 1 unbranched followed by 11-12 branched rays. Vertebrae 18-19 +
54-56 = 72-74. Total gill rakers 12, reaching the raker below when
appressed. The gut has a large stomach and an intestine with 3 about
loops. Chromosome number is 2n=60 (Ráb et al., 1994; Klinkhardt et al., 1995).
Sexual dimorphism
Abdurakhmanov (1962) reports that females have longer maxillary barbels, a longer postorbital length and a greater caudal peduncle
depth than males in Azerbaijan.
Colour
The body is mottled with brown, green or dark grey, even ventrally,
over the base colour. The back is dark, from olive-brown to a
blue-black, the sides lighter and the belly greyish-white with bluish
speckles. Fins are a dark red-brown to brown-violet. Paired fins have
a yellowish streak in the middle. Iris yellowish with black speckles.
This species can blend its colour with any bottom on which it lies in
wait for prey (Fortunatova, 1961).
Size
Reaches legendary sizes of 5 m and 336 kg but most are much
smaller. In the Volga Delta females reach 1.75 m and 31 kg and males
1.95 m and 41 kg (Orlova, 1988); in Dagestan specimens up to 1.93 m
and 41.3 kg are recorded although fish weighing 3.2-4.8 kg predominate (Shikhshabekov, 1978).
In the Caspian Sea commercial fishery of Iran, this species ranges
in size from 41 to 186 cm and 0.6 to 42 kg (Farid-Pak, no date).
Sohrabi (1996a) reports the larger fish in Iranian waters usually
weigh 10-40 kg and depicts two fish from Gilan. One caught in 1995
weighed 27 kg, the other caught in 1994 weighed 62 kg. The record fish
from Iran, caught by a Mr. Haratonian weighed 120 kg and was 2.2 m
long. Eastwick (1864) bought a specimen 4.5 feet long (1.37 m) in the
Safid River which had a 7 lb (3.2 kg) fish in its stomach. De
Mecquenem (1908) reported that they reached 2 m in the Lake Orumiyeh
basin and Anonymous (1977) reports fish from there at 400 lbs (= ca.
182 kg). Asghar Abdoli of the Agricultural and Natural Resources
University, Gorgan kindly sent me a photograph of a specimen from the
Aras Dam caught 5 October 1994 which was 2.25 m long and weighed about 90 kg.
Distribution
This species is found in Europe, Central Asia and Southwest Asia. In Iran it
is found along the whole Caspian coast from the Aras River and Dam, and from the Astara to the Atrak rivers
including the Anzali Mordab and the Manjil Dam on the Safid River, from the southwest Caspian Sea and south-central Caspian Sea,
and in the Lake Orumiyeh basin (Günther, 1899; Nedoshivin and Il'in, 1929;
Berg, 1936; Nümann, 1966; Holčík and Oláh, 1992; Nejatsanatee, 1994; Riazi, 1996; Abbasi et al., 1999;
Kiabi et al., 1999; Jolodar and Abdoli, 2004). Also reported from the Karakum Canal and Kopetdag Reservoir in
Turkmenistan (Aliev et al., 1988; Shakirova and Sukhanova, 1994; Sal'nikov, 1995) and may
enter Iranian waters of the Tedzhen (= Hari) River basin.
Abdoli (2000) maps this species from lower Gorgan, Neka, Babol, Heraz, Chalus,
Tonekabon, and Safid rivers, the Anzali Talab, along the Caspian coast, and in
the middle Aras River, and in the lower Talkheh and Zarrineh rivers of the Lake Orumiyeh basin.
Also aid to occur in the Tigris-Euphrates basin in Iraq but needs specimens
for confirmation (see Freshwater Fishes of Iraq).
Zoogeography
The isolated populations of this wide-ranging species have not been studied.
It may well have an origin in the Ponto-Caspian basin from which it has dispersed.
Habitat
This large species is found in the larger water bodies over soft
bottoms and can tolerate brackish water (even for spawning) and
moderately low oxygen levels. Warm, deep waters with slow current are
preferred. It is active at night. Adults are solitary and found under
overhanging banks or submerged trees. This catfish overwinters in
aggregations on river beds. Resumed activity in spring depends on the
local water temperature regime, probably as early as March in Iran.
Riazi (1996) reports that this species is native (resident) to the
Siah-Keshim Protected Region of the Anzali Mordab. Knipovich (1921)
reports this species from depths of 23.8-25.6 m in the Iranian Caspian Sea.
Movements, such as hunting for food, are stimulated by such
environmental factors as temperature, solar radiation, air pressure
and turbidity after rain.
It is sensitive to extra-aquatic sounds. The head canal system is very sensitive
and can track prey over distances up to 55 times the length of the prey and
follow signals up to 10 seconds old (Kottelat and Freyhof, 2007).
Age and growth
Life span is 22 years for males and 16 years for females in the
Volga Delta. Growth is most intensive in the first years of life.
After maturity the annual increase in length is 5-7 cm. Relative
weight increase is very high (30%) while length increase is 6-10%.
June-July is the period of greatest length increase while weight
increase takes place mainly in autumn. Maturity begins at 3-4 years,
57-66 cm and 1.3-2.3 kg but may be as early as 2 years, 51-52 cm and
1.2-2.2 kg or as late as the sixth year (Orlova, 1988). Maximum life span is 80
years.
Abbasi and Valipour (2006) found 9 age groups in the Anzali Lagoon with
females making up 68.5% of fish caught. Total length of 95 fish was 19.8-186.5
cm and weight was 47.7-30,000 g.
Food
Food in the Volga Delta includes such fishes as Cyprinus carpio,
Abramis brama, Scardinius erythrophthalmus and, prior to
the regulation of the Volga, Rutilus rutilus and herrings (Clupeidae).
Crustaceans now form part of the diet there (Orlova, 1988). At one
time this catfish in the Volga delta ate 62-68% of its annual
food in one month in spring when the Caspian roach (Rutilus rutilus)
arrived on its spawning run. In the Kura region, commercial fishes
such as Cyprinus carpio, Abramis brama, Rutilus
rutilus, Aspius aspius, Sander lucioperca, Chalcalburnus
(= Alburnus) chalcoides, Barbus brachycephalus or Barbus capito,
and Silurus glanis make up 30.27% by frequency and 20.18% by
weight, non-commercial species such as Scardinius erythrophthalmus,
Tinca tinca, Cobitis spp., Rhodeus amarus, Pungitius
platygaster, Atherina boyeri, Alburnus alburnus, Blicca
bjoerkna, and Caspiomyzon wagneri make up 50.68% and 33.79%
respectively, marine fishes such as Clupeidae, Mugilidae, and Gobiidae
make up 12.90% and 8.60% respectively, and crustaceans 25.64% and
17.09% respectively (Mamedov and Abbasov, 1990). In Azerbaijan,
Abdurakhmanov (1962) reports Gobio gobio to comprise 22.4% of
the diet, Caspiomyzon wagneri 15.7% and eggs 2.2%, Chalcalburnus
(= Alburnus) chalcoides 10.2%, Alburnus alburnus 10.2%, Cobitis
taenia 9%, Barbus lacerta 7.8%, Barbus capito 6.7%, Chondrostoma
oxyrhynchum 5.6%, Capoeta capoeta 3.4%, Blicca bjoerkna 2.2%, and loaches 4.5%.
In the Anzali Lagoon of Iran according to Abbasi and Valipour (2006), this
species ate 78.6% bony fishes, 15.8% crustaceans, 4.13% insects, 0.9% amphibians
and 0.5% bivalves. Carassius auratus dominated at 33.9%, followed by the
crustacean Macrobrachium spp., at 14.22%, Neogobius kessleri at
4.59% and Proterorhinus marmoratus at 2.75%. C. auratus dominated
in spring and autumn, Macrobrachium spp. in summer and N. kessleri
in winter. Consumption of fish increased with size, being 44.2% at 20-55 cm and
94.5% at 91-125 cm, Cannibalism was not observed and commercial fish stocks were not consumed.
Generally a wide variety of fishes is taken along with crayfish,
frogs and even birds and small aquatic mammals. It is a voracious
predator but stories of attacks on dogs and small children are more
legendary than factual although human remains may be scavenged (Gudger,
1945b). Active feeding occurs at water temperatures above 8°C
so winter feeding is minimal or absent. While feeding often occurs at
night, catfish can be heard feeding in the evenings by the snapping of
the mouth and tail strikes on the water. In cloudy water conditions
they come into shallow water to take earthworms, grasshoppers and
frogs washed in from nearby fields (Mihálik, 1982).
Young catfish feed on plankton, particularly Cladocera such as Daphnia,
Chydorus, Alona and Bosmina among others. Later
the diet involves mosquito larvae, larger crustaceans, organisms
associated with the river bank, worms, snails and young fishes.
Cannibalism occurs if food is short (Mihálik, 1982).
Reproduction
Non-intermittent spawning in Dagestan takes place in late May
and continues to the middle of July when the eggs of females mature at
a water temperature of 20-22°C. Spawning rarely occurs below 20°C.
Males may actually have running milt 30-40 days earlier than this and
also later, a longer potential spawning season. Adhesive yellow eggs
are laid in depressions in weed beds, formed by the male pressing on
the plants. Fecundity is up to 285,000 eggs with diameters around 2-3
mm (to 467,000 elsewhere). Elsewhere spawning may be intermittent (Shikhshabekov, 1978).
The male guards the incubating eggs, even during the day, moving
his tail fin every 3-5 minutes to ensure adequate oxygen supplies.
Nests in Europe may be on the fine roots of plants which hang freely
in the water. The nest is in shallow, 40-60 cm, water. Males pursue
females just under the water surface, an indication spawning will
occur the same evening or the next day. Spawning usually occurs in the
evening, often before a thunderstorm on warm and stifling days. The
male nudges the female in the anal region, swims under her and may
lift her so that her back is above water, the male wraps himself
around the female for 10-12 seconds, the male and female separate and
the female sinks slowly to the bottom and discharges eggs, the male
following to release milt. This process can be repeated several times
over 1.5-2.0 hours and the water around the nest is milky from sexual
products. Eggs hatch after 2.5-3.0 days at 23-25°C.
Larvae are light sensitive and die in direct sunlight ands also if
water temperature falls below 13-14°C (Mihálik, 1982).
Parasites and predators
Mokhayer (1976b) records the digenetic trematodes Aphanurus
stossichi and Bunocotyle cingulata, the nematode larvae Anisakis
sp. and the nematode adults Cucullanus sphaerocephala, and the
acanthocephalan Corynosoma caspicum. Ataee and Eslami (1999,
www.mondialvet99.com, downloaded 31 May 2000) report the helminth Mazocea
alaosa from the gastro-intetsinal tract of fish from the Anzali
wetland. Masoumian et al. (2005) recorded the protozoan parasite
Trichodina perforata from this species in the Aras Dam in West Azarbayjan. Khara et al. (2006a) record the eye
fluke Diplostomum spathaceum for this fish in the Amirkalayeh Wetland in
Gilan. Sattari et al. (2005) surveyed this species in the Anzali and Amirkelayeh wetlands, recording
Raphidascaris acus, Raphidascaroides sp. and Eustrongyloides excisus.
The Caspian seal, Pusa caspica, is a predator on this species (Krylov, 1984).
Economic importance
There is some opportunity for sport fishing for this species in the
Anzali Mordab and Lake Orumiyeh basin where it will take spinners and
spoons as well as frog live bait. It reputedly puts up a tremendous
fight (Anonymous, 1977).
Nevraev (1929) reports on catches in various regions of Iran in the
early years of the twentieth century. There were no evident trends of
increase or decrease. In the Astara region from 1901-1902 to 1913-1914
the catch varied irregularly from 699 to 4031 fish, in the Anzali
region from 1901-1902 to 1918-1919 the catch varied from 18,177 to
206,485 fish, in the Safid River region from 1899-1900 to 1917-1918
the catch varied from 3290 to 43,835 fish, in the Mazandaran region
from 1906-1907 to 1913-1914 the catch varied from 5282 to 11,283 fish,
and in the Astrabad region from 1902-1903 to 1912-1913 the catch
varied from 3500 to 26,200 fish. The commercial catch in Iran from
1956/1957 to 1961/1962 varied between 4,913 kg and 37,630 kg (Vladykov,
1964) and from 1965/66 to 1968/69 varied from 11 to 31 tonnes (Andersskog,
1970) but in the 6 years from 1980 to 1985 catches were recorded by
the Food and Agriculture Organization, Rome as respectively 2, 2, 0,
2, 3, and 0 tonnes. The catch has been as high as 107,593 kg for the
Anzali region alone in 1934/1935 (Vladykov, 1964). Holčík
and Oláh (1992) report a catch of 2663 kg in the Anzali Mordab in
1990, at 3.6% of the catch the sixth most important fish there, and
from 1932-1964 reported catches varied from none to 12.6 tonnes
annually. The Iranian fishery peaks in October and in April (Farid-Pak,
no date). This species is of great commercial importance in Dagestan (Shikhshabekov,
1978). The roe has been used as a form of caviar and glue has been
made from the swimbladder and bones. In the Lake Orumiyeh basin this
fish was used as fertiliser since, being scaleless, it could not be
eaten for religious reasons (De Mecquenem, 1908).
Robins et al. (1991) list this species as important to North
Americans. Importance is based on its use as food, for industrial
processes (such as fertilizers, fish meal, pet food, novelty products
although not specified for this species), in sport, and in textbooks.
The swimbladders were used for isinglass in the Caspian Sea basin (Lönnberg, 1900a).
This species has been implicated in ichthyootoxism, the symptoms of
which are summarised under the genus Schizothorax. The presence
of venom associated with the pectoral fins (Coad, 1979b) needs
definitive examination.
Conservation
Lelek (1987) classifies this species as rare to vulnerable in
Europe because of habitat changes and angling pressure. Kiabi et al.
(1999) consider this species to be of least concern in the south
Caspian Sea basin according to IUCN criteria. Criteria include
commercial fishing, sport fishing, medium numbers, habitat
destruction, widespread range (75% of water bodies), present in other
water bodies in Iran, and present outside the Caspian Sea basin. Vulnerable in
Turkey (Fricke et al., 2007).
Further work
Population numbers need to be monitored carefully as it is fished for
although it lacks scales. Populations in isolated basins have not been examined
in detail for their relationships to see if they are distinct.
Sources
Kobayakawa (1989) revised the genus Silurus and his data are
incorporated here. Mihálik (1982) reviewed the biology of this catfish.
Iranian material: CMNFI 1970-0509, 1, 131.2 mm standard length, Gilan, Safid River at Hasan Kiadeh (37º24'N, 49º58'E);
CMNFI 1979-0685, 2, 63.9-107.7 mm standard length, Gilan, Safid River below Dehcha (ca. 37º22'N, ca. 50º06'E);
CMNFI 1979-0788, 2, 293.5-335.6 mm standard length, Mazandaran, Gorgan River at Khvajeh Nafas (37º00'N, 54º07'E);
CMNFI 1979-1236, 1, 269.0 mm standard length, Mazandaran, Gorgan River at Khvajeh Nafas (37º00'N, 54º07'E);
CMNFI 1980-0123, 1, 225.3 mm standard length, Gilan, Safid River around Dehcha (37º22'N, 50º06'E);
CMNFI 1980-0905, 1, 208.0 mm standard length, Mazandaran, Gorgan River at Khvajeh Nafas (37º00'N, 54º07'E);
OSU 4278, 2, 227.2-280.2 mm standard length, Azarbayjan-e Bakhtari, Zarineh River (no other locality data).
Silurus triostegus
Heckel, 1843
NMW 92345, syntype, Tigris River near Mosul, ca. 582 mm standard length
Common names
esbele, and jirri, yeri, yery, yari or iry (= eel), esbele-ye
beinolnahrein (= Mesopotamian catfish); sag mahi (= dog fish) in
Khuzestan; gorbeh mahi (= catfish).
[djirri, jirri, girri or yerri (= eel) in Arabic; Mesopotamian catfish,
Tigris catfish].
Systematics
Silurus chantrei Sauvage, 1882, a species with 4 barbels,
was described from the "Fleuve Koura à Tiflis (= Kura River at
Tbilisi, Georgia) but was possibly based on material from the
Tigris-Euphrates basin (Berg, 1948-49; Haig, 1952) and may well be a
synonym of this species. Two syntypes of Silurus chantrei,
160-170 mm total length, are in the Muséum national d'Histoire
naturelle, Paris under MNHN A.3932 (Eschmeyer et al., 1996).
Günther (1899), Banister (1980) and Hora and Misra (1943) considered that S. triostegus may not be
distinct from S. glanis but Coad and Holčík (2000) detail differences.
The type locality of Silurus triostegus is the "Tigris
bei Mossul" according to Heckel (1843) and the description was
based on 4 specimens although the catalogue in Vienna lists 1 specimen
in spirits and 2 stuffed specimens. The card index in Vienna in 1997
lists only NMW 92345 as a dried syntype. Coad and Holčík (2000) found only
a single stuffed type, ca. 582 mm standard length. Eschmeyer et al. (1996) list 1 dried syntype of triostegus
in the Senckenberg Museum Frankfurt (SMF 2623, formerly NMW) and this has a
standard length of ca. 710 mm. An image of S. triostegus (SMF 2623) is available
at http://acsi.acnatsci.org/base/image_show_wrapper.html?target=221708.
Key characters
This species differs from S. glanis by having robust and longer teeth
(snaggly, catching on flesh), the upper and lower jaws meet at a dorsal and
superior position (antero-dorsal in S. glanis), a distinctly and coarsely
serrate pectoral fin spine posteriorly, and a lighter colour. Maxillary barbel
length is about equal to head length while in S. glanis it is much longer
on average, although there is some overlap. Anterior mandibular barbels (when present) are always shorter than
posterior mandibular barbels while in Silurus glanis the
anterior mandibular barbels are always longer (Ünlü and Bozkurt, 1996).
Morphology
Bears 4 barbels in some specimens as opposed to the usual 6 in S.
glanis but there is evidence that the four-barbelled Silurus
(sometimes placed in a distinct genus Parasilurus Bleeker,
1862, e.g. in Berg (1949), now synonymised with Silurus - see
Eschmeyer (1990)) have 6 barbels when young and one pair of mandibular
barbels is reabsorbed (see Haig, 1952). Specimens with one pair and
with two pairs of mandibular barbels have been reported (Kobayakawa,
1989). Ünlü and Bozkurt (1996) record 4 mandibular barbels (2 pairs)
in 3 specimens, 3 barbels in 1 specimen and 1 pair in another specimen
for Turkish Euphrates fish. In Silurus triostegus, the adults
apparently lose one pair of barbels (F. Krupp, in litt., 1992). Coad
and Holčík (2000) found all S. glanis in their study had 4 mandibular barbels (2
pairs) while in S. triostegus 11 fish had 4 mandibular barbels and 12
fish lacked the posterior mandibular pair. There was no apparent trend in barbel
loss associated with increase in body size.
The pectoral fin spine is strongly serrated on its inner surface and smooth
on its outer surface. Vomerine teeth are in two patches, not one as in
Silurus glanis (Kobayakawa, 1989), although Ünlü and Bozkurt
(1996) record some specimens of S. triostegus with only one
patch. The maxillary barbel reaches only to the end of the head, not
much longer as in S. glanis. However, Ünlü and Bozkurt (1996)
report that maxillary barbels are longer than the head and later that
they reach the end of the head; it is suggested here that barbel
length varies individually. The lower jaw is longer than the upper
jaw. Teeth in both jaws are recurved, the band of teeth is wider than
in S. glanis, and the teeth are stronger and longer. The eye is
larger than in S. glanis.
Dorsal fin branched rays 3-4 (counts of 3 rays are more common than in S.
glanis; 3 in ten fish and 4 in thirteen fish examined by Coad and Holčík
(2000)), pectoral fin branched rays 11-14 with
1 spine, pelvic fin branched rays 8-13 after 1 unbranched ray, anal
fin rays 77-94, vertebrae 16-17 + 52-53 = 69-70, and total gill rakers
12-17, reaching the one below when appressed (Coad and Holčík,
2000). The stomach is large, and apparently more elonagte than in S. glanis although this
may be distortion due to food content. The intestine has about 3 loops.
Sexual dimorphism
Unknown.
Colour
The upper body is mottled pale yellow-brown and black. Overall colour may
appear dark or light and yellowish. Generally much
lighter than Silurus glanis. The belly
and lower head are white with the belly having black spots. Maxillary
barbels and margin of the lower jaw very dark brown.
Size
Reaches 4.5 kg in Iraq (van den Eelaart, 1954; Herzog, 1967), 1.5 m
in the Syrian Euphrates (Gruvel, 1931) and to more than 2 m (Krupp, 1992).
Distribution
This species is found in the Tigris-Euphrates basin including its Iranian
portion in Khuzestan and such rivers as the Arvand, Bahmanshir, and Jarrahi, and
the lower Karun, Karkheh and Dez (Marammazi, 1995; Abdoli, 2000).
Zoogeography
This species is presumably a relative of S. glanis but its closest
affinities may lie with species to the east. Differentiation of the two species
may have occurred around the Middle to late Miocene but this requires further
study (Coad and Holčík, 2000).
Habitat
van den Eelaart (1954) reports this species from open and vegetated
lakes and marshes and rivers in Iraq. The larger fish are mostly
confined to rivers, entering marshes and lakes only on floods. The
young have a greater tolerance of high temperatures and low oxygen.
Age and growth
Al-Abood (1989) found age groups 2 to 7 years for fish from a marsh
area north of Basrah, Iraq in 6 weight groups from 300 to 3900 g. Al-Hassan
and Al-Sayab (1994) examined 600 specimens from the Al-Hammar Marsh
north of Basrah, Iraq for age using vertebrae and eye lens diameter
and found 6 age groups. Oymak et al. (2001) describe 11 age groups
in Atatürk Dam Lake, Turkey with females having higher L∞ (202.85 cm versus
113.98) and lower K (0.046871 versus 0.101972) values than males. Males matured
at age 3 and females at age 4.
Food
Fish are an important food including Liza abu and Acanthobrama
marmid (Al-Shamma'a and Jasim, 1993; Ünlü and Bozkurt, 1996;
personal observations). Aquatic insects are also taken but fish predominate.
Fish are an important food including Liza abu and Acanthobrama
marmid in the Iraqi marshes and presumably those across the border in Iran (Al-Shamma'a and Jasim, 1993; Ünlü and Bozkurt, 1996;
Dawood, 1997; personal
observations). The food in Hawr al Hammar, Iraq was predominately fish (Liza abu,
Aphanius spp., Aspius vorax, Thryssa spp., Acanthobrama
marmid, Silurus triostegus (young less than 16 cm were eaten by
adults longer than 35 cm), Barbus sharpeyi, Heteropneustes fossilis
and Cyprinus carpio) followed by shrimps (mainly Metapenaeus affinis),
frogs (Rana esculenta) and crabs (mainly Sesarma boulengeri) with
relative importance indices of 70.8, 16.3, 6.4 and 4.9 respectively (Al-Daham
and Al-Seyab, 2000). Liza abu was the most important fish through most of
the year (except July and August when absent)(relative importance index 42.0,
followed by C. carpio at 11.5), in numerical abundance and total weight.
During July the prey was B. sharpeyi and C. carpio and in August
prey was restricted to C. carpio, presumably opportunistic feeding. Other
fish species were mostly young of the year and of minor importance. The diet at
Al-Fuhoud in the Hawr al Hammar was 70.7% fish by volume (Al-Shamma'a, 2005).
Aquatic insects are also taken but fish predominated. Dawood (1997) also studied
diet in the southern Hammar Marsh and found fish to be the most important prey
year round while shrimps (Metapenaeus affinis) and molluscs were
important in certain months (mostly absent April-August). The
disappearance of shrimps probably relates to their migratory pattern. Aquatic
insects were found mostly in the spring. There is a reverse relationship between
the presence of fish and shrimps. Fish and shrimps increased in the diet with
increase in size while aquatic insects, molluscs and small crustaceans decreased
with size. Fish species eaten were Liza abu, Barbus luteus,
Alburnus sp., Cyprinus carpio, Thryssa hamiltoni,
Heteropneustes fossilis, Aphanius sp., Gambusia holbrooki and
Silurus triostegus. Frogs, detritus and aquatic plants were also found in
the gut contents. Feeding occurred more at night and with another peak in late
afternoon. The index of fullness values increased in April-September when water
temperatures and metabolic rate rose.
Reproduction
Spawning takes place in March in Iraq (van den Eelaart, 1954; Al-Hassan et
al., 1990) to May and June in Turkey (Oymak et al.,
2001). The highest condition factors were found in
April in Atatürk Dam Lake, Turkey, the mean egg diameter was greatest in May at
1.937 mm and fecundity attained 120,300 eggs (Oymak et al., 2001).
Parasites and predators
Mortazaei et al. (2000) report an infection rate of 33.3%
(22 of 6 fish) with the parasitic worms Proteocephalus sp. in
this species from Khuzestan marshes.
Economic importance
This species forms 8.5% of the total catch in Iraq (Das et al.,
1978), the total catch in 1976 being 691 t (Petr, 1987), but it is not
a popular food. As a scaleless fish it is not eaten by Shi'a Muslims.
It was found to have potential for use as a protein concentrate.
Conservation
This species is not commonly collected in Iran but this may be a consequence
of habitats sampled and gear used. It may be under some threat as it is fished
for, at least in neighbouring Iraqi waters.
Further work
Population numbers have not been examined for fish in Iran nor are its biology
or relationships well known.
Sources
Kobayakawa (1989) revised the genus Silurus and his data are
incorporated here as is the data of Ünlü and Bozkurt (1996) for Turkish Euphrates specimens.
Type material: See above, Silurus triostegus (NMW 92345).
Iranian material: CMNFI 1993-0133, 1, 192.9 mm standard length, Khuzestan, probably Karun River at Ahvaz (31º19'N, 48º42'E);
SNM-YR 6421, 1, 325.6 mm standard length, Khuzestan, Karun River at Ahvaz (31º19'N, 48º42'E);
ZSM 21832, 1, 406.0 mm standard length, Khuzestan, Dez River at Harmaleh (31º57'N, 48º34'E);
ZSM 21833, 1, 425.4 mm standard length, Khuzestan, Dez River at Harmaleh (31º57'N, 48º34'E);
uncatalogued, 1, 317.7 mm standard length, Khuzestan, probably Karun River at Ahvaz (31º19'N, 48º42'E).
Comparative material: BM(NH) 1874.4.28:3-5 and 1875.1.14:8 (same jar), 4, 236.7-511.5 mm standard length, Iraq, Tigris River near Baghdad (ca. 33º21'N, ca. 44º25'E);
BM(NH) 1888.5.17:1, 1, 336.2 mm standard length, Iraq, Fao, presumably a fish market (no other locality data);
BM(NH) 1893.6.23:26-28, 3, 254.3-425.7 mm standard length, Iraq, Fao (no other locality data);
BM(NH) 1892.9.1:26, 1, 270.8 mm standard length, Iraq, Fao (no other locality data);
BM(NH) 1920.3.3:167-176, 13, 123.1-490.9 mm standard length, Iraq, Basrah (30°30'N, 47°47'E).
Sisoridae
The sisorid or sucker catfishes are found in Asia as far east as
Borneo. There are about 17 genera with about 112 species (Nelson, 2006). They are
mostly small (as small as 2 cm) although some are very large (2 m).
Five nominal species are reported from the Tigris-Euphrates basin in
Southwest Asia but the diversity there is very limited, compared to
India for example. A single specimen of a sisorid catfish has been
caught in the Yeşil Irmak of Anatolian Turkey at Taşova (40°46'N, 36°20'E).
This Black Sea drainage specimen calls into question the utility of
characters used in identifying and defining species in Southwest Asia.
Its characters are a mixture of features shared by G. armeniacus
and G. silviae. A wide range of specimens of both sexes,
various age groups and from various localities is not available to assess
variation and resolve the species composition of the Southwest
Asian fauna (Coad and Delmastro, 1985)).
The sisorid catfish family is characterised by a rounded to
compressed body and a flattened head; short dorsal fin positioned
anterior to the level of the pelvic fins; a spine in the dorsal fin
(absent in some non-Iranian species) and in the pectoral fin; a
well-developed adipose fin; a short anal fin; paired fins horizontal;
gill membranes generally united to the isthmus; anterior and posterior
nostrils close together; distinct nasal barbel present; 4-6 pairs of
barbels; body with small tubercles (unculi); and a distinct thoracic
adhesive apparatus in Iranian species but absent in some other species.
These catfishes are found in mountain streams where they use the
adhesive apparatus to maintain position in the current. In Iran they
are reputed to lie on their backs in the water to take a rest! They
are also very resistant and can live for 6 hours wrapped in wet cloth,
reviving when placed in an aquarium (R. Mehrani, pers. comm., 2000).
Genus Glyptothorax
Blyth, 1860
This genus is characterised by a flattened head, an adipose fin of
moderate length, a short dorsal fin with a strong spine, the spine
serrated anteriorly or posteriorly, or smooth, pectoral fin spine
serrated posteriorly and in some with plicate skin ventrally, 4 pairs
of barbels, maxillary barbels broadly based, an inferior and
transverse mouth, villiform teeth on the roof of the mouth in two
patches, eyes small and partly obscured by skin, gill openings wide,
gill membranes joined to the isthmus, and an adhesive apparatus on the
chest formed from plaits or folds of skin, often with a central depression.
The validity of the described Glyptothorax species in the
Tigris-Euphrates has not been adequately resolved. Three other nominal
species occur in addition to the two reported here from Iran, namely G.
armeniacus (Berg, 1918), G. cous (Linnaeus, 1766), and G.
steindachneri (Pietschmann, 1913) (see Coad and Delmastro (1985)
for a partial discussion of this problem). Resolution of the taxa
found in Iran awaits more extensive material for a better
understanding of individual and species variation.
Aglyptosternon Bleeker, 1862 (and such mispellings as Aclyptosteron,
Enclyptosternum and variants- see Eschmeyer (1990) for details)
are synonyms of Glyptothorax (Li, 1986; Eschmeyer, 1990).
Confusion over the family placement of these fishes in various
literature sources is reviewed in Banister (1980).
They are known generally as گربه ماهي
(= gorbeh mahi, meaning cat fish) or arteshi in
Farsi. Arteshi (meaning soldier-like) may be from their tank-like appearance
or for their pigmentation which is said to resemble camouflage. Another general
name is سگ ماهي (sag mahi, meaning dog fish).
General names are not repeated below.
Menon (1954) considered that the members of this genus had spread
westwards along the Himalayas as late as the early Pleistocene. A
centre of origin in western Yunnan and the southern slopes of the
Himalayas is advocated by Li (1986). This author suggests that a
Pliocene movement occurred westwards and that, as well, the
distribution of Glyptothorax was influenced by Pleistocene
glaciations. Their entry route into the Tigris-Euphrates basin is
given as along the Amu Darya system.
Glyptothorax armeniacus
(Berg, 1918)
Found in the Euphrates River basin southeast of Erzurum in Turkey but no Iranian record.
Glyptothorax cous
(Linnaeus, 1766)
Reported from the Tigris River basin in Iraq but no Iranian record.
Species identity in the Tigris needs confirmation by specimens. See Banister (1980) for a brief history of the confusion surrounding
the name of this species in the literature.
Glyptothorax kurdistanicus
(Berg, 1931)
Common names
gorbehmahi-ye Kordestan.
[Kordestan sisorid; Iran cat (Fricke et al., 2007)].
Systematics
This species was originally described in the genus Glyptosternum,
an unjustified emendation of Glyptosternon McClelland, 1842 by
Berg (1931a). See Eschmeyer (1990) for further details on this genus name.
The holotype of this species is in the Zoological Institute, St.
Petersburg (ZISP 20780) and is in poor condition, the pectoral spines
being damaged for example. It is an adult male. The collection date in
Berg (1931a) is 10 July 1914 (or 27 June old style). The type locality
is "in Kurdistan, at the village Germau (or Germav), at the
height of 1500 m, during the works of the Turko-Persian delimitation
commission. Germau (or Germav, Germaw) is situated in latitude 36°N
south-east of Serdesht, on the western slope of the Sur-kei Range, in
the basin of the river Bané, tributary to the Little Zab, which is
tributary to the Tigris R.". Berg (1949) gives the variants
Germab and Sar Dasht for the localities and Bané is probably Baneh.
The village Germab could not be located in gazetteers or on maps but
Sar Dasht (36°09'N, 45°28'E) and Baneh (35°59'N, 45°53'E)
are evident and the locality is between them.
Key characters
Berg (1931a) separates this species from G. armeniacus by
the broader than long adhesive apparatus which does not have pinnate
lateral branches and these characters also contrast with G. silviae.
The caudal peduncle is short (5.9-6.0 in standard length compared to
4.7-5.2 in G. silviae).
Morphology
Dorsal fin with 1 spine followed by 5-7 branched rays, anal fin
with 2 unbranched rays followed by 7-9 branched rays (note that these
fin ray counts in Berg (1931a) do not agree with his figure). Pectoral
fin with 1 spine and 7-9 branched rays. Total gill rakers 7-9,
moderately long and reaching beyond the base of the second raker below
when appressed. The adipose fin is short, much shorter than the
distance between the dorsal and adipose fins. There are oblique osseus
striae under the skin of the upper surface of the first pectoral ray.
Head and body covered with minute, elongate tubercles oriented
longitudinally but without striae. Tubercles are also present on the
base of the caudal fin rays, adipose fin, base of the dorsal and
pectoral fins, on the pectoral spine along its whole length both
dorsally and ventrally, a few on the base of the pelvic fin rays and
few to none on the belly particularly anterior to the pelvic fins.
Tubercles on the side of the head are more rounded. Berg (1931a)
states that the upper jaw tooth patch has well-developed lateral rami,
but these do not extend markedly from the main patch. The nasal barbel
is short and does not extend back to the eye. The maxillary barbel is
shorter than head length and the mandibular and mental barbels are
progressively shorter. The gut is an elongate s-shape after a muscular stomach.
Sexual dimorphism
Unknown.
Colour
Overall colour grey to brown with large, obvious, round, black
spots and blotches on the sides or with small round black spots about
eye size. All fins with broad black central band and variably
developed basal bar. Basal bar most evident on the caudal fin. Adipose
mostly covered with a large dark spot but dorsal and posterior edges hyaline.
Size
Attains 267.2 mm total length.
Distribution
Found in the Tigris-Euphrates basin including that part in Iran. Abdoli (2000) has
mapped it in the upper Karun, middle and lower Dez, middle and upper
Karkheh, Kashkan, Simarreh and lower Gav Masiab rivers.
Zoogeography
The relationships of this species, as with other members of the genus, is
presumably with the more diverse fauna to the east.
Habitat
Unknown in detail but it is assumed to be in rocky and gravelly rivers which provide hiding places.
Age and growth
Unknown.
Food
Unknown for Iran but Turkish specimens contained fish remains in the stomach.
Reproduction
Unknown.
Parasites and predators
Unknown.
Economic importance
This species is not of any direct economic importance.
Conservation
This species is poorly known in Iran and may be rare enough to warrant conservation efforts.
Further work
See under G. silviae.
Sources
Type material: See above, Glyptosternum armeniacum (ZISP 20780).
Iranian material: None.
Comparative material:- BM(NH) 1974.2.22:1789, 346.6 mm standard length, Iraq (no other locality data);
BM(NH) 1968.12.13:465-470, 4, 53.7-76.8 mm standard length, Syria, Euphrates at Mayadine (35º01'N, 40º27'E);
SMF 23676, 4, 229.0-297.7 mm standard length, Syria, bei al-Hasaka (36º30'N, 40º44'E);
SMF 23677, 2, 65.7-122.0 mm standard length, Syria, Wadi Furati (36º26'N, 40º52'E);
ZMH 4430, 2, 129.8-133.3 mm standard length, Turkey, Kemaliye Karasu (no other locality data).
Glyptothorax silviae
Coad, 1981
Common names
gorbehmahi-ye jonubi or jonub (= southern catfish).
[Sylvie's sisorid, southern sisorid].
Systematics
The holotype is in the Canadian Museum of Nature, Ottawa under CMNFI 1979-0390A and measures 67.6 mm standard length. It is from "Khuzestan,
stream 3 km south of Bagh-e Malek, tributary to Rud-e Zard or Ab-e Ala
in the drainage of the Jarrahi River, 31°29'N, 49°54'30"E".
Two paratypes from the same locality measure 44.0-51.5 mm standard
length and are under CMNFI 1979-0390B, a third paratype measuring 42.3 mm
standard length under CMNFI 1979-0389 is from a "stream tributary to
Rud-e Zard or Ab-e Ala, 1 km south of Bagh-e Malek, in the drainage of
the Jarrahi River, 31°31'N, 49°53'30"E",
and a fourth paratype measuring 134.8 mm standard length under CMNFI 1979-0280 is from "Lorestan, river at "Pol-e Chubee" in
Kashkan River drainage on Khorramabad to Kermanshah road via Nurabad (either Kaka Reza River at 33°43'N, 48°15'E or its tributary at 33°47'N, 48°12'E)".
Key characters
The head and body dorso-laterally lack striated or elongate
tubercles (present in G. kurdistanicus). The thoracic adhesive
apparatus is longer than wide (the reverse in G. kurdistanicus).
The caudal peduncle is long (4.7-5.2 in standard length, 5.9-6.0 in G. kurdistanicus).
Morphology
Dorsal fin spines are smooth and number 2, branched rays 6; anal
fin branched rays 8; pectoral fin branched rays 7-9; pelvic fin
branched rays 5; total gill rakers 6-9; retrorse pectoral fin spine
teeth 7-16, the number increasing with size of the fish; and total
vertebrae 35-38. The adipose fin is long, its length being about equal
to the distance between the dorsal fin insertion and the adipose
origin (0.9-1.1). The pectoral fin is short and does not extend back
to the pelvic fin origin. The caudal peduncle is deep (depth 47-62% of
caudal peduncle length). The "sucker" or thoracic adhesive
apparatus has pinnate lateral branches and is markedly longer than
wide with a wide and long central depression. The head and body are
finely papillose, particularly on the ventral surface. Anterior to the
adhesive apparatus the ventral head surface is strongly papillose,
becoming less developed laterally. The upper lip is much more strongly
papillose than the weakly papillose lower lip.
Sexual dimorphism
Unknown.
Colour
The body is nearly immaculate but in live fish is mottled light
lime- green, grey-green, brown or grey. All fins have a central black
bar on a salmon-pink, peach or yellow coloured background. The
thoracic adhesive apparatus is pink due to an underlying vascular
supply. The eye is red.
Preserved fish may have very few scattered brown or black spots
dorsally and laterally on an otherwise immaculate body. The overall
body colour is brown becoming pale brown or cream on the belly. The
base of the caudal fin has a wide black bar separated from a second
distal bar by an unpigmented section of the fin rays. The central-most
4 rays of the caudal fin are variably black in the otherwise
unpigmented bar. The postero-dorsal and postero-ventral corners of the
caudal lobes are not pigmented but the margins of the lobes are black.
The central portion of the adipose fin is black with the margins
unpigmented in smaller specimens. There is no black pigment on the
basal part of this fin. The paired fins and the anal fin are
unpigmented distally but become yellowish with fleshy tissue
proximally and then brown at their bases. A central band is not
well-defined in small specimens. A light patch is found on the back at
the dorsal fin origin and at the dorsal fin insertion. The dorsal fin
is darkly pigmented and a central black band is apparent although
poorly defined. The adult female is generally darker than the smaller
male fish in the type series such that the caudal fin bars are not as
well defined, The adipose fin is dark brown and the light patches at
the dorsal fin are not distinctive. However the bars on the dorsal,
anal and paired fins are more obvious.
Size
Reaches 13.5 cm standard length.
Distribution
Known only from rivers draining to the Persian Gulf in southwestern
Iran. Abdoli (2000) has also mapped it in the upper Karun and middle to lower Khersan,
and middle to lower Dez rivers in the Tigris River basin and in the Mand and Shur
rivers of the Gulf basin (the latter tributary to the Dasht-e Palang River).
Zoogeography
This species is known from waters in southern Khuzestan and from a
single specimen from the Gulf basin. This latter is probably a relict of the
late Pleistocene when the Tigris-Euphrates flowed down a drained Gulf receiving
tributaries now isolated by the post-Pleistocene rise in sea level (Coad and Krupp, 1983).
Habitat
Their ability to use their sucker for clinging to objects can be
seen in plastic jars where small specimens will adhere to the sides out of the water.
Age and growth
Unknown. Esmaeili and Ebrahimi (2006) give a significant length-weight relationship based
on 10 fish measuring 5.60-10.66 cm fork length. The a-value
was 0.0164 and the b-value 2.975 (a b-value < 3 indicating a fish
that becomes less rotund as length increases and a b-value >3 indicating
a fish that becomes more rotund as length increases).
Food
Unknown.
Reproduction
The largest specimen in the type series is a female bearing eggs
and was caught on 6 July. The breeding season is probably the summer months.
Parasites and predators
Unknown.
Economic importance
This species is not of any direct economic importance.
Conservation
Collections with an electroshocker in 1995 showed this species to be common in the Rud-e Zard.
Further work
The distribution of this and related species should be determined
by further field work using electroshocking equipment to extract
specimens from under rocks. The validity of the nominal
Tigris-Euphrates basin species, including this one, needs examination
using large series of adult and young which are not yet available in
collections. Variation in critical characters is poorly known because
of this shortage of specimens. Molecular and chromosomal techniques
may provide additional characters.
Sources
Type material: See above, Glyptothorax silviae (CMNFI 1979-0390A, CMNFI 1979-0390B, CMNFI 1979-0280 and CMNFI 1979-0389).
Iranian material: Type material.
Glyptothorax steindachneri
(Pietschmann, 1913)
Reported from the Tigris River basin at Mosul in Iraq. The two
syntypes in the Naturhistorisches Museum Wien have not been located
(1997 visit) and the brief description is without figures or details of the
thoracic adhesive apparatus. Its validity is in question. Not reported from Iran.
Heteropneustidae
The stinging or airsac catfishes comprise a single genus with about three
species found naturally from Pakistan through India to Thailand.
The family is characterised by an elongate and compressed body with
a flattened head; the mouth is small and transverse with fleshy, papillated lips; villiform teeth
present on the jaws and vomer; 4 pairs of barbels present (nasal, maxillary and 2 mandibular); the anterior
nostril is tubular and the posterior nostril a slit; gill openings
wide and gill membranes free from the isthmus; air sacs are present
(see below); swimbladder very small; the dorsal fin is short and
spineless; no evident adipose fin; very long anal fin confluent with
the caudal or separated from it by a notch; pectoral fin with a strong
and venomous spine; skin scaleless; and branchiostegal rays 7.
These fishes can live in stagnant water by breathing air. They are
dangerous to man since the pectoral spine harbours a strong venom.
Stinging catfishes nonetheless are an important food in the native range.
Genus Heteropneustes
Müller, 1840
The only genus in the family, its characters are given above.
Heteropneustes fossilis
(Bloch, 1794)
Common names
eshlambo or abu shalambo (note variants on this word are used for
catfishes and mudskippers); dudeh, doodeh or dood in Khuzestan (=
smoke, perhaps because it is blackish); bu shalambo in Khuzestan;
گربه ماهي نيش زن
(= gorbeh mahi-e nishzan); گربه ماهي هندي
(= gorbeh mahi hendi, meaning Indian catfish).
[samaka, abu-al-hukum, abu al-hakim, samma, djirri lasseye or jamhoori (latter at Baghdad in reference to the then new republic or jamhooria
(F. Kedairy, in litt., 21 December 2005)) in
Arabic; singhi in Pakistan; Indian stinging catfish].
Systematics
Silurus fossilis was originally described from India.
A syntype of this species is in the Museum für Naturkunde,
Universität Humboldt, Berlin under ZMB 3074 (Eschmeyer et al., 1996).
Key characters
The 4 pairs of barbels, short and spineless dorsal fin, absence of
an adipose fin, and the long anal fin are distinctive. The head is
small and very flattened and tapers both dorsally and ventrally to a
terminal mouth.
Morphology
There are two, tubular air sacs extending from the gill cavity
almost to the caudal peduncle, enabling this catfish to breathe air.
On capture, air from these sacs may escape and cause a peculiar
squawking sound. The anatomy and function of these organs was reviewed
by Datta Munshi (1993).
Dorsal fin with 6-8 rays but no spine, anal fin rays 60-79,
pectoral fin branched rays 7-8 after a strong spine serrated on its
inner margin, and pelvic fin branched rays 5-6. Fin rays are difficult
to count without dissection or x-rays because of the fleshy and
heavily pigmented nature of the fins. Iranian specimens generally fall
within the ranges cited above from literature sources as far as can be
determined. Spine serrations are more notch-like than toothed. Al-Hassan
et al. (1990) have demonstrated that the level of asymmetry in
pectoral fin ray and total gill raker counts increases with fish
length. Gill rakers are elongate, reaching adjacent raker 5-7 when
appressed and number about 25. Barbels are elongate, the snout barbel
being the shortest at about head length, the inner mandibular barbel
being head length or longer, and the mouth corner and outer mandibular
barbel being much longer than the head. The gut is elongate with
several posterior coils.
Zakaria (1964) gives details of the pectoral fin spine anatomy. Singhkohli and Goswami (1987) and Kaul and Rishi (1987) describe
abnormalities in this species including an upturned tail, a forked
tail and forked barbels.
Sexual dimorphism
Unknown.
Colour
Yellow or leaden to dark green, grey-brown, rust-brown or even
black, occasionally with two yellowish stripes. The flanks may also be
spotted. The barbels are darker than the adjacent body. The eye is
yellow. Young specimens are reddish and have a pale belly with
numerous melanophores.
Size
Males reach 24.2 cm, females 34.4 cm in India (Datta Munshi and Choudhary, 1996).
Distribution
First recorded from Iraq for 1960 by Khalaf (1961) and Zakaria
(1964) when a strange fish was reported to have inflicted a
"painful bite" on several victims. The species spread
northward and also eastward into Iran from southern Iraq. One collection from
Dezful (see below) is dated February 1960 so the spread into Iran must have been
very rapid or the original Iraqi introduction some years earlier than
documented. Found from Iraq eastward but not continuously through South Asia to
Vietnam. It is
common in rivers and marshes of Khuzestan including the Dasht-e Azadegan and the
Arvand River (Abdoli, 2000). Berra (2001) omits their Middle Eastern
distribution as they are thought to be introduced.
Zoogeography
An Iraqi biologist told me that this species was introduced to Iraq
for mosquito control (sic) by local authorities although no one
would later admit to it. A more reasonable assumption is that it was
introduced to eat the snail Bulinus truncatus, a vector for the
human parasite causing schistosomiasis. It was ineffective in this
regard (L. A. J. Al-Hassan, in litt., 1995; Jawad, 2003). There has probably
been no natural, large scale migration from Pakistan as envisaged by
Banister and Clarke (1977) and Banister (1980). Some Sumerian names
may refer to this species but this is by no means certain (Sahrhage, 1999).
Habitat
It is common in rivers, marshes, ponds and canals and is found in both fresh and slightly
brackish waters. Al-Daham and Bhatti (1977) found this species to suffer a 25% mortality over 72
hours at 10.25‰ sea water. It was most abundant in polluted and stagnant
areas in the lower Diyala River where it dominated catches or was the only fish
present (Khalaf et al., 1986; Biro et al., 1988). It is common in
swamps and can survive temperatures up to 39.8°C (Pethiyagoda, 1991). Specimens
survived 3-6 hours in air. It air
breathes every 3-5 minutes but the frequency varies with time of day and weather
conditions. On hot and calm days it visits the surface more frequently than
during a heavy shower. S. Cowton (pers. comm., 23 August 2005) has observed
schools of this species gaping at the surface in the artificial lake around Al
Faw Palace in Baghdad, presumably in response to high temperatures and low
oxygen. Individuals were also seen rapidly swimming straight up to the surface,
gulping and diving straight back down again. On especially sultry days it may
float or swim near the surface. In the dry season of India it can live in
semi-liquid mud or at the bottom of fissures where the mud has cracked (Jayaram,
1980). It makes nest holes in the sides of ponds about 1 foot below the water
surface in the form of anastomosing tubes with several exits. Up to 364 fish can
be found in one complex of holes (Datta Munshi and Choudhary, 1996). Tekrival
and Rao (1999) report its aquarium preferences and habits as 22-25°C, pH
7.5-8.5, alkaline water, predator, not too bright lighting, bottom dwelling with
stones, roots and crevices preferred and cave brooding reproduction. Zakaria
(1964) noted aquarium specimens producing audible squeaks when excited and
preferred the darker side of an aquarium.
Age and growth
Khalaf et al. (1987) gave length-weight relationships for Diyala River,
Iraq fish in autumn as W = 9.12 L2.95 (r = 0.98, n = 58) and in spring W =
0.11 L2.15 (r = 0.84, n = 66) and condition factor was 0.0012 in
autumn and 0.08 in spring. Islam et al. (1982) give the following
length-weight relationships for fish from the Ashar Canal, Basrah, Iraq:- log W =
-6.35211 + 3.53226 log TL (r = 0.93543), log W = -5.96765 + 3.42353 log SL (r =
0.93687), and log W = -1.35223 + 2.04705 log GL (r = 0.87876) (TL = total
length, SL = standard length, GL = girth length). Tabrez Nasar (1993) studied
populations in India and gives length-weight relationships, log W = 1.7661 +
3.035 log L for one population and log W = 1.805 + 2.615log L for another. The
coefficient of condition varied from 1.582 to 2.151, mean 1.89. A pond
population did not grow as well as a natural one. Life span was up to 4 years in
Iraq at Qarmat Ali using ocular lens diameter and vertebral rings (Al-Hassan
et al., 1992) and may be 4+ years in India (Datta Munshi and Choudhary,
1996).
Food
Al-Daham et al. (1977) studied the diel feeding of this
species in the Ashar Canal, Basrah, Iraq. Two feeding peaks were
observed - at 0500 hours and 1700 hours, dawn and dusk, but stomachs
examined around the clock had food in them. Aquatic plants and
detritus are the bulk of the diet, followed by entomostracans and
aquatic insect larvae. Also present are fish parts, molluscs and
non-aquatic organisms. Cannibalism is reported in India for young fish
(Jayaram, 1980). Khalaf et al. (1987) studied this species in
the Diyala River, Iraq and found young fish to take chironomids and
worms while larger ones ate fish. However all sizes take aquatic
insects in spring. There is some competition with Barbus sharpeyi, a
commercial species (Jawad, 2003).
In a study of the recovering Hawr al Hammar, diet was 47.2% insects, 22.1% shrimps
and 20.8% fish, in the Hawr al Hawizah 33.9% shrimps, 25.8% fish, 20.8% insects
and 19.2% snails and in the Al Kaba'ish (= Chabaish) Marsh 51.2% shrimps, 26.4% fish, 12.0%
insects and 10.4% snails (Hussain et al., 2006).
Chili macaroni, corned beef casserole, mixed vegetables and salad are dietary
items at Camp Liberty, a former palace in Baghdad, where American soldiers feed
leftovers from a distinguished visitors dining hall to catfishes, apparently
this species (www.estripes.com, downloaded 7 September 2006).
Small Iranian specimens contained insects in their guts including
Notonectidae and Diptera larvae. Abdoli (2000) lists diatoms, Chlorophyceaae,
fish remains, Corixidae, Hemiptera, cyclopoid Copepoda, termites, Isopoda,
Chironomidae, Oligochaeta and Rotifera.
Reproduction
Sexual maturity in India is reached when fish are about 1 year old,
at 8.5 cm for males and 12.0 cm for females. Fecundity reaches 12,000 eggs (Haniffa
et al., 2008). Eggs are laid in a
shallow depression excavated by both the male and female in mud or
sand. Eggs are light green. They hatch in about 2 days in Sri Lanka.
The parents guard the eggs and young until the young fish are about a
month old and able to look after themselves. Singh Kohli and Goswami (1987)
describe spawning behaviour in aquaria after hypophysation using
pituitary glands of Indian major carps. A pair of males circled each
other in a figure 8 pattern until one established dominance. The
dominant male chased the female, swimming underneath her or
obstructing her path, and touching barbels. The male tried to bite the
female in the chases and shivered its whole body while making lateral
passes. The male arcs its body into a u-shape, the female touches the
male's genital papilla and the pair remain motionless for 2-5 seconds.
The female jerks and separates from the male releasing the eggs which
settle to the bottom. The pair rest before mating agian. About 40-200
eggs are released after each mating. Mating acts number 20-100 and
always occur near the surface of the aquarium. Spawning is more
complete and egg fertilisation is better when there is one female and
two males, the other male acting as a stimulator, with the spawning
male quarrelling with the non-spawning male between mating with the
female. Datta Munshi and Choudhary (1996) report similar behaviour. The male nudges
the genital region of the female with his head, occasionally
shaking it from side to side. Eventually the female is aroused and
nudges the male genital region. This
female action was necessary for mating to occur. Mating did not
happen when spawners were of different sizes. Once
the female has her snout below the male genitalia, the male twists his
body to place his snout below her genitalia. The fish remain
motionless for 2 seconds, then the male vibrates his body and the
female convulses and releases eggs. This can happen 30-50 times for
each couple at 2-3 minute and then later 5-10 minutes or longer
intervals. About 100-150 eggs are extruded, the number decreasing over
time. If more than one male is present, mating only occurs after one
establishes dominance. Males may eat eggs. Spawners mate in the water
column or near the surface.
Parasites and predators
Jalali et al. (2005) summarise the occurrence of Gyrodactylus
species in Iran and record G. fossilis in fish from the Karun River.
Economic importance
An important food fish in India and Sri Lanka, where its flesh is
reported to have invigorating qualities. Some fish are exported from
Sri Lanka for the aquarium trade. V. D. Vladykov reported (in litt.,
22 July 1963) that he had seen this species in pet shops in Tehran, on
sale at about $2.00 each.
The pectoral spine can cause a serious wound because of the toxin
content of the epidermal cells covering the spine. The histology of
the pectoral spines was described by Bhimachar (1944) based on Indian
material and the toxin was found to have both neurotoxic and
haemolytic effects. The toxin is fatal to frogs (within 15-20 minutes
of subcutaneous injection of glycerinated venom) and to other fishes.
Zakaria (1964) reported severe swelling involving the whole arm
from a hand sting in Iraq. The swelling and pain recede after about a
day but the puncture wound can take about two weeks to heal and some
pain can be felt when applying pressure to the wound site up to six
weeks later. Caras (1964) (probably based on a report in Farsi in Game
and Nature, Tehran, ca. 1961) recorded a diminutive black fish
found in the Shatt al Arab which reputedly killed 28 people with a
venomous bite (sic). Death was said to be swift. This
was presumably a garbled report on this species. Verbal and newspaper
reports from Tehran (V. D. Vladykov, in litt., 26 August 1961)
maintain that this species could cause death to cattle and humans
although Vladykov (in litt., 30 September 1963) considered
fatal cases "not well proved". I was stung in the thumb by
this fish in Iran with no effect (although I did devote considerable
time and effort into squeezing and sucking blood from the puncture
site!). Freshly caught or netted fish swing the head from side to side
and thus are active envenomators (despite knowing this I was still
stung). Treatment is symptomatic and some relief can be obtained by
immersing the sting site in water as hot as can be withstood and
applying a meat tenderiser. These treatments serve to coagulate the
protein toxin. The wound should be cleaned to avoid secondary
infections such as tetanus (Halstead, 1967-1970; Coad, 1979b).
R. Beck (pers. comm., 2000) reports that this fish is now
present in the Syrian Euphrates, its tributaries, and in irrigation
canals. Incredible numbers occur near town sewage outlets and in weed beds. It
is known to consume eggs of
Barbus grypus, a preferred food species
Robins et al. (1991) list this species as important to North
Americans. Importance is based on its use in aquaculture, as food, in
textbooks and because of its venomous nature.
Conservation
This is an exotic species and requires no conservation although it is is
listed as Vulnerable in its natural habitats (Haniffa et al., 2008a).
Further work
The distribution of this species should be mapped as it is potentially hazardous to humans.
Sources
Iranian material:- CMNFI 1979-0087, 1, 189.0 mm standard length, Khuzestan, Karun River at Ahvaz (31º19'N, 48º42'E);
CMNFI 1979-0359, 5, 96.9-114.2 mm standard length, Khuzestan, Karkheh River at Hamidiyeh (31º29'N, 48º26'E);
CMNFI 1980-0909, 4, 113.2-165.0 mm standard length, ? Khuzestan (no other locality data);
BM(NH) 1980.8.28:4-5, 2, 91.7-98.0 mm standard length, Khuzestan, Dezful (32º23'N, 48º24'E);
ZSM 27369, 3, 111.9-139.0 mm standard length, Khuzestan, Karun River near Ahvaz (ca. 31º19'N, ca. 48º42'E).
Comparative material: BM(NH) 1962.7.26:80-83, 4, 127.8-189.0, Iraq, Baghdad (33º21'N, 44º25'E);
BM(NH) 1974.2.22:1785, 1, 89.8 mm standard length, Iraq (no other locality data);
BM(NH) 1974.2.22:1786-1788, 3, 102.3-165.3 mm standard length, Iraq (no other locality data);
ZSM 19455-56, 2, 123.2-127.7 mm standard length, Iraq, Tigris River near Amara (ca. 31º43'N, ca. 47º06'E).
Esocidae
The pikes, pickerels and muskellunge are found in fresh waters of
the Northern Hemisphere. They are moderate to large-sized fishes, up
to 1.4 m. There are only 5 species with 1 reported in Iran.
The family is characterised by a flattened, elongate, duck-billed
snout; dorsal and anal fins far back on the body near the tail; no
adipose fin; teeth on the tongue and on the basibranchial bones behind
the tongue are small; jaws have large teeth; branchiostegal rays
10-20; nasal bones are present; the swimbladder is connected to the
gut by a duct; intermuscular bones are forked or y-shaped; no fin
spines; pelvic fins are abdominal; cycloid scales; the infraorbital
sensory canal on the head has 8 or more pores; gill rakers are present
as sharp denticles in patches; no pyloric caeca; the lateral line is
complete; and the forked caudal fin has mostly 17 branched rays.
Pikes are predators on other fishes aided by the posterior dorsal
and anal fins which facilitate rapid darts forward. They are important
sport fishes, much sought after by anglers for their fighting ability,
but are not very good eating because of the intermuscular bones.
Genus Esox
Linnaeus, 1758
The characters of this genus have been outlined above under the family.
Esox lucius
Linnaeus, 1758
Common names
ordak mahi (= duck fish from the snout shape), shok, shuk or shook (in
Gilaki), shook chehkhab, chekab.
[durnabaligi in Azerbaijan; shchuka in Russian; pike; northern pike].
Systematics
Esox Lucius was originally described from Europe.
Key characters
The broad and flat snout and the dorsal and anal fins set far back on the body are distinctive.
Morphology
Dorsal fin principal rays 15-19, about 6-10 unbranched and 13-18
branched, principal anal rays 12-16, about 4-8 unbranched and 10-15
branched, pectoral rays 11-17 and pelvic rays 7-13. The number of
branched rays may be size-related as in smaller fish more anterior
rays in the dorsal and anal fins are not branched. Lateral line scales
105-148, pored scales 42-56, but difficult to count accurately. Each
scale on mid-flank is a rounded rectangle. The anterior margin is
indented where 1-2 radii terminate. The radii split the scale so that
the segments overlap. Circuli are very fine and the focus is
posterior. Gill rakers are broad and spinulose, embedded in the arch
skin with the tips of the spinules protruding. There are 9-11 pores on
the lower jaws (usually 5 on each jaw). Vertebrae 56-65. The
chromosome number is 2n=50 (Klinkhardt et al., 1995). The gut
is an elongate s-shape.
Meristic values for Iranian specimens are:- dorsal fin branched
rays 14(7) or 15(9); anal fin branched rays 11(1), 12(8) or 13(7);
pectoral fin branched rays 14(9), 15(5) or 16(1); pelvic fin branched
rays 8(1), 9(7), 10(6), 12(1) or 13(1); pores on each lower jaw 5(22).
Sexual dimorphism
There is no obvious sexual dimorphism. Attempts have been made to
sex pike by characters of the urogenital region, but these are
hampered by seasonal variations. Abdurakhmanov (1962) reports on fish
from Azerbaijan where head length is greater in males while predorsal
distance and interorbital width are greater in females.
Colour
The overall colour is dark with light spots, although there is
variation over the vast range of this species in the details. The back
and upper flank are dark green, olive-green or brownish, fading to a
whitish belly. The flank has 7-9 rows of greenish, yellow to whitish
blotches along it. Scales have a golden tip. The head sides have wavy,
golden or yellow blotches and lines and the eyes are bright yellow to
golden. The dorsal, anal and caudal fins are green, yellow, orange or
pale red, blotched and barred irregularly with black. The pectoral and
pelvic fins are dusky to orange. Young have 8-12, wavy, white or
yellow bars which become the bean-shaped blotches in adults as they
gradually break up. There is a gold to green stripe along the middle
of the back in some fish but others are completely dark green. There
is a stripe below the eye. The peritoneum is silvery.
Size
Attains 1.75 m and about 48 kg despite legends of pike up to 5 m (Tsepkin, 1986).
Distribution
Across northern Eurasia and northern North America. Iranian
populations are found in the Caspian Sea basin from the Anzali Mordab to Gorgan Bay and its
tributaries and the Atrak River basin (Derzhavin, 1934; Berg, 1936; Armantrout,
1980; Holčík and Oláh, 1992; Nejatsanatee, 1994; Riazi, 1996; Abbasi et al., 1999;
Kiabi et al., 1999; Jolodar and Abdoli, 2004).
This species has been introduced to Valasht Lake near Marzanabad, Avan River
and Evan Lake northeast of Qazvin, the upper Karaj and middle Shur (Abhar stretch) rivers of the Namak
lake basin, the Avan River near Alamut (in 1956), Ghorigol Lake near Tabriz, Marivan Lake in Kordestan, and
the Haft Barm Lakes west of Shiraz (Anonymous, 1977; Petr, 1987; Niamir, 2001).
Zoogeography
This widely-distributed species reaches its southern range limit in Iran.
Habitat
Pike are solitary and are found in lakes and rivers where the water
is still or flowing slowly as well as marshes and ponds. They are
found only in the lower reaches of rivers along the Iranian shore and
do not penetrate upstream (Berg, 1948-1949). O'Donovan (1882) reported that a
small stream in the Atrak River drainage had many large pike lurking under
bushes, stupefied by foul water, and that the Cossacks in his escort caught many of them by striking with
the point of their sabres or simply whisked them out of the water by the tail.
Large numbers of Rutilus frisii were seen here too and presumably the
pike thrived on this food source. Riazi (1996) reports that
this species is native (resident) to the Siah-Keshim Protected Region
of the Anzali Mordab. They are found in the more brackish areas of the
Caspian Sea, at least in Kizlyar Bay of the north Caspian, at
salinities up to 4‰ under the influence of fresh water from the
Volga River. Here they are found in thickets of soft and rigid
vegetation, as solitary predators but also feeding beyond the
vegetation limit in the sea. They aggregate only in spring for
spawning and in autumn prior to wintering on the bottom (Stolyarov and Abusheva, 1997).
In fresh water, vegetation is heavy and the water warm but they
usually retire to deeper, cooler water at the height of summer.
Temperatures above about 30°C are usually fatal to pike. However pike are active in winter, as
anglers can testify, and at this time can tolerate dissolved oxygen
concentrations lower than 0.1 mg/l. pH range is 5.0-9.5 although they
have been recorded as spawning at 4.2-4.4 but embryos are then
malformed (Mann, 1996). Summer distribution is usually within 300 m of
shore and less than 4 m deep. On windy days, pike retreat offshore in
surface waters. Pike tolerate brackish water, up to about 7‰ for
reproduction and 10‰ for feeding and growth. Reproduction
requires living or dead vegetation (either aquatic or flooded
terrestrial vegetation) in shallow, still waters protected from strong
winds. Vegetation is also important for recruitment of young pike. Pike deposit
their faeces at specific locations far from their usual feeding area as the
faeces contain alarm pheromones recognised, and avoided by, prey species.
Age and growth
Life span is up to about 26 years but is less than half this in
fast-growing southern populations. Some aquarium fish have lived 75
years. Maturity, like growth, varies with latitude and habitat, and
also with quality of food. Higher temperatures may inhibit growth.
Males mature at 1-6 years (30-46 cm) and females usually at 2-6 years,
rarely at 1 year (31-63 cm). Females grow larger, faster and live
longer than males. Growth is best at 19-21°C and is very efficient.
Nezami Balochy et al. (2005) examined this species in the
Zibakenar-Kiashar Bojagh lagoon on the Caspian coast of Iran. The 122 fish were
17.7-74.0 cm long, average total length being 33 cm, and weight was 38-1100 g
(average 307.3 g). The age groups were 0-9 years. Nezami et al. (2006)
examined this species in the Amirkelayeh Lagoon and found ages 1+ to 6+
years, average total length 44.8 cm (range 15.6-63.0 cm) and average weight
717.9 g (24-1700 g). Valipour (1998) investigated the pike in four areas of the
Anzali Lagoon and found relatively fast growth with fish above 2 years of age
mature with an average length of 32 cm.
In the Kizlyar Bay of the north Caspian Sea, males mostly mature at
age 2+ with a body length of 36-40 cm while females are 3+ and 45-50
cm. Some males are mature in the first year of life at 26-30 cm and
some females in the second year of life at 33-36 cm. Maximum age is 11
years in this population (Stolyarov and Abusheva, 1997). In Lake Aksehir, Turkey most males and females are mature at 2
years of age (Karabatak, 1988). Altindağ et al. (1999)
give growth features for a population in a Kesikköprü Dam
lake, Turkey where females reached age 5 and males age 4.
Food
Food is initially zooplankton and aquatic insects but fish begin to
predominate at 5.0 cm after about 1 month's growth. Over 90% of the
diet of adults is fish, but frogs, crayfish, mice, muskrats and
ducklings are taken. Both sexes fast during spawning but females have
rations 1.5-2.3 times as much as males in summer and winter. The daily
ration was high from May to August with a June peak and very low in
winter in North America.
Pike have a highly mobile eye which enables them to spot prey in
almost any direction and have sighting grooves along the snout to
facilitate their judgement of depth and distance. Food is seized after
a rapid dart from concealment. Cylindrical fish like perch are
preferred over more deep-bodied species as being easier to swallow.
The prey capture process can be summarised as follows: eye movements
towards prey, turning of body towards prey, stalking, darting,
capture, rotating prey head first in mouth, and swallowing. Prey is sucked
into the mouth which is opened just as the pike reaches its prey. Prey
size is usually about one-third to one-half the length of the pike.
Valipour (1998) found feeding intensity and growth coefficient of this
species in the Anzali Lagoon decreased with age. Fish in the 0+ age group fed
mainly on zooplanktonic mysids while older fish took Carassius auratus,
Hemiculter leucisculus, Rhodeus amarus and larvae of Alburnus
chalcoides. Apparently, the pike is not restricting populations of
commercial species in the lagoon but has an important role in controlling
non-commercial exotics such as Carassius auratus and Hemiculter
leucisculus. Abdoli (2000) lists Gambusia holbrooki, Carassius auratus, Hemiculter
leucisculus, Liza saliens, Atherina boyeri and Alburnus
charusini (= Alburnus alburnus) as food items for Iranian pike.
The Zibakenar-Kiashar Bojagh lagoon fish had Odonata (14%) as the most frequent
food, followed closely by Syngnathus abaster (13.8%) and Neogobius
gorlap (13.4%). Other fish eaten included Gambusia holbrooki and pike.
Nezami et al. (2006) examined this species in the Amirkelayeh
Lagoon and found the diet to be 24% Tinca tinca, 16% Proterorhinus
marmoratus, with Esox lucius, plecopterans, frogs and water beetles
at 8%, and Syngnathus abaster, Carassius auratus and Gammarus
at 4%. Diet varied with season, and age and sex of the pike.
In the Kyzylagach or Imeni Kirova Bay of Azerbaijan Abramis
brama, Cyprinus carpio, Rutilus rutilus, Rutilus
frisii, Vimba vimba, Mugilidae, and Atherina boyeri
are taken (Kuliev, 1989). Pike are cannibals when food is short. They
compete with other piscivorous fishes, such as Sander lucioperca
and Perca fluviatilis, for food.
In the Kizlyar Bay of the north Caspian, the food of 2-month-old
pike 3-4 cm long is mainly Rutilus rutilus fry, of pike 9-15 cm
long this species plus fry of Cyprinus carpio and Scardinius
erythrophthalmus, and of adults mainly Cyprinus carpio, Rutilus
rutilus and Clupeonella cultriventris (during its spawning
migration in April and May), Scardinius erythrophthalmus, Tinca
tinca, Blicca bjoerkna, Alburnus alburnus, Cobitis
sp., some gobies, frogs and crayfish. Sturgeon fry were once an
important diet item but this declined with the decline in sturgeon
numbers (Stolyarov and Abusheva, 1997).
Reproduction
The spring spawning migration in Dagestan begins at ice melt and
spawning takes place from mid-March to the beginning of April when
water temperatures reach 5-7°C.
One batch of eggs is laid over a period of 10-15 days (Shikhshabekov,
1978). Spawning runs occur in the late evening and early night,
several days before spawning occurs. Spawning takes place during the
day, often in mid-afternoon, in shallow bays or flooded fields just
after ice melt, generally in late March to May. Water temperatures on
the spawning run are as low as 1.1°C.
Spawning itself takes place at temperatures several degrees warmer
than this, up to 17.2°C. Each female is accompanied by 1-2 males as she swims over vegetation in the shallow
water. Both sexes roll to bring their genital regions close together,
vibrate and release 5-60 eggs and the sperm. Tail sweeps scatter the
eggs. This 3-10 second process is repeated many times each day. Eggs
are amber, up to 3.4 mm in diameter after fertilisation, adhesive and
each female can produce up to 595,000, although usually much less. In
the Kizlyar Bay of the north Caspian Sea, the oldest females produce
365,000 eggs (Stolyarov and Abusheva, 1997). Eggs hatch 12-14 days
later and the fry attach to vegetation by an adhesive head gland until
the yolk sac is absorbed 6-10 days later.
The Kizlyar Bay population begins to spawn in late February or
early March, sometimes under ice or immediately after ice melt at 4-6°C.
Eggs are laid at depths of about 0.5 m and may dry out during water
surges caused by northwestern winds although the increase in sea level
has lessened this. Eggs adhere to vegetation but fall off after 2-3
days but do not die because of the low water temperatures and
favourable oxygen conditions. Eggs hatch in 7-18 days depending on
water temperature (Stolyarov and Abusheva, 1997).
Parasites and predators
Eslami et al. (1972) found helminths in 78.9% of 109 pike
examined from Iran, a very high rate of infestation. The species
encountered were Triaenophorus crassus, Raphidascaris acus
and Contracaecum osculatum baicalensis. This latter parasite
can infest man if fish is eaten smoked, salted or fried at
temperatures below 50°C. Mokhayer (1976b) records the digenetic trematode Rhipidocotyle
illense, the nematode larva Eustrongylides excisus, and the
acanthocephalan Acanthocephalus lucii. Molnár and Jalali
(1992) report the monogenean Tetraonchus monenteron from pike
in Lake "Sama" in the Alborz Mountains. Ataee and Eslami
(1999, www.mondialvet99.com, downloaded 31 May 2000) report Asymphylodora
tinca from the gastro-intestinal tract of fish from the Anzali
wetland. Naem et al. (2002) found the monogenean trematode Tetraonchus
monenteron on the gills of this species from the western branch of the Safid
River. Khara et al. (2006a) record the eye fluke Diplostomum
spathaceum for this fish in the Amirkalayeh Wetland in Gilan. Sattari (2004)
records the presence of the nematode, Eustrongylides excisus. This
parasite can damage muscles in commercial species and render them unsuitable for
sale. Sattari et al. (2005) surveyed this species in the Anzali,
Amirkelayeh and Boojagh wetlands, recording Raphidascaris acus,
Eustrongyloides excisus and Camallanus lacustris.
Khara et al. (2006b) record the nematode Raphidascaris acus from
this species in the Boojagh Wetland of the Caspian coast. Sattari et al. (2007) record the
nematodes Raphidascaris acus and Eustrongylides excisus, the
digeneans Rhipidocotyle illense and Diplostomum spathaceum and the
monogenean Tetraonchus monenteron in this species in the Anzali wetland of
the Caspian shore.
Young pike are eaten by various other fishes including adult pike,
birds and even large aquatic insects.
Economic importance
Nevraev (1929) reports a catch for the 1901-1902 to 1913-1914
period in the Anzali region was 1150 to 20,529 fish.
Holčík and Oláh (1992) report a catch of 5836 kg in the Anzali Mordab in
1990, at 7.8% of the catch the fourth most important fish there, while
annual reported catches from 1932-1964 varied from none to 98 tonnes.
However it is not a favoured food fish in Iran (Vladykov, 1964).
There is some opportunity for sport fishing for this species in the
Anzali Mordab and potentially in various lakes around the country
where it has been introduced (Anonymous, 1977). Anglers catch this
species in rivers along the Caspian shore such as in the Shazdeh River
at Babol Sar (Noorbakhsh, 1993b). It is an important sport and
commercial fish in other parts of its range. The catch in Turkey in
1981 was 796 tonnes and for the inland waters of the former U.S.S.R.
in 1975 it was 16,101 tonnes. Stolyarov and Abusheva (1997) report a
commercial stock of 2500 t with a recommended catch of 800-850 t in
Kizlyar Bay in the north Caspian in the early 1990s.
The eggs or roe of this species are very poisonous as fresh
extracts injected intravenously into rabbits have caused respiratory
distress, convulsion and death within one hour (Halstead, 1967-1970).
Conservation
Raat (1988) gives details of conditions which should exist to
facilitate pike reproduction and growth, including such factors as
vegetation, water levels, eutrophication, pollution, prey
availability, intra- and inter-specific interactions, fishery,
stocking, concentration of dissolved solids, pH levels, and
temperature regimes. Vladykov (1964) noted a fish kill in the Anzali
Mordab on 11 June 1962 where water chestnut (Trappa natans) had
caused an oxygen deficiency in the shallow water.
Gilan Fisheries Research Station has cultured pike in earthern
ponds. Pike caught in autumn and winter were injected with
gonadotropic hormone from carp (4-7 mg/kg). Eggs were stripped after
48-72 hours and incubated for 10 days at 8-11°C
and 7-8 days at 10-15°C. Absorption of the larval yolk sac took approximately twice as long as
the incubation period.
Ramin (1999) reports on a project involving artificial spawning and
raising of fry in earthen ponds. Spawning temperatures were 8-15°C
from 4 February to 20 March. Males and females were a minimum of 3
years old and a maximum of 5 and 6 years respectively and weighed
0.75-4.0 kg. Eggs composed 10-20% of body weight, incubation lasted
120 degree days and yolk sac absorption 160-180 degree days. The rate
of fertilization was 45-85% and swelled eggs were 2.5-3.5 mm. Absolute
fecundity was 22,400-112,000. Survival from larvae to fingerlings in
chicken manure enriched ponds was 20-22% over 50 days with growth to
7.4 g and 8.5 cm on average.
Kiabi et al. (1999) consider this species to be conservation
dependent in the south Caspian Sea basin according to IUCN criteria.
Criteria include commercial fishing, sport fishing, medium numbers,
habitat destruction, medium range (25-75% of water bodies), present in
other water bodies in Iran, and present outside the Caspian Sea basin.
Endangered in Turkey (Fricke et al., 2007).
Further work
The distribution and population numbers of of this species needs documentation in Iran.
Sources
Crossman and Casselman (1987) give a bibliography and Raat (1988)
and Craig (1996) give synopses of biological data on this extensively
studied species. General biology and characters are based on
world-wide data. Sohrabi (1996b) gives an account of this species in Farsi.
Iranian material: CMNFI 1970-0510, 1, 250.3 mm standard length, Gilan,
Golshan River (37°26'N, 49°40'E); CMNFI 1970-0535A, 1, 329.6 mm standard length,
Gilan, Pir Bazar Roga (37°21'N, 49°33'E); CMNFI 1970-0542, 1, 39.0, mm standard
length, Gilan, Old Safid River estuary (37°23'N, 50°11'E); CMNFI 1970-0543A, 1.
136.2 mm standard length, Gilan, Caspian Sea at Hasan Kiadeh (37°24'N, 49°58'E);
CMNFI 1970-0553, 1, 136.7 mm standard length, Gilan, Sosar Roga (37°27'N,
49°30'E); CMNFI 1970-0579, 9, 71.9-111.2 mm standard length, Gilan, Old Safid
River estuary (37°23'N, 50°11'E); CMNFI 1971-0343, 3, 63.8-74.7 mm standard
length, Gilan, Langarud at Chamkhaleh (37°13'N, 50°16'E); CMNFI 1979-0685, 1,
149.2 mm standard length, Gilan, Safid River around Mohsenabad below Dehcha (no
other locality data); CMNFI 1980-0123, 2, 126.3-209.3 mm standard length, Gilan,
Safid River around Dehcha above Mohsenabad (no other locality data); CMNFI
1980-0138, 2, 148.2-164.3 mm standard length, Gilan, Safid River estuary (ca.
37°28'N, ca. 49°54'E); CMNFI 1993-0147, 1, 106.0 mm standard length, Iran (no
other locality data).
Salmonidae
This family comprises the salmons, trouts, charrs and whitefishes
and contains 11 genera and about 66 species found in cooler water in the Northern
Hemisphere (Nelson, 2006). The distribution map in Berra (2001) is too extensive in
the south of Iran. There are only two species native to Iran but several
others have been introduced with varying degrees of success.
Whitefishes may be placed in their own family, Coregonidae, but views
differ (see Nelson, 1994; 2006).
Members of this family are characterised by numerous, deeply
embedded scales on the body but not the head; an adipose fin; a
lateral line with relatively numerous and often quite small scales; 7-20 branchiostegal rays; 3 upturned vertebrae at the tail
fin; a large swimbladder; usually numerous pyloric caeca (11-210);
gill membranes free from the isthmus; a small dorsal fin with few rays
(less than 17); a pelvic axillary process; young usually with parr
marks (bars along the flank); and a tetraploid karyotype.
Family members are important in fish culture in all the cooler
waters world-wide.
Genus Coregonus
Linnaeus, 1758
This genus is characterised by small, almost toothless mouth, 115
or fewer scales in the lateral line, gill rakers often long and slender, there
is a single flap between the nostrils, and no bright and complex colour patterns
in adults and no parr marks in young, forked caudal fin. Numerous named species
in North America and Eurasia (FishBase gives 217 in Coregonus alone,
August 2007), variously recognised as full species or not.
Coregonus lavaretus
(Linnaeus, 1758)
Common names
safid mahi (= white fish at Karaj Dam), safid mahi juibarye (=
brook or rivulet white fish), koregon or coregon.
[European whitefish, powan, houting, skelly, gwyniad, lavaret, pollan].
Systematics
Salmo lavaretus was originally described from Lake Bourget,
France (Kottelat, 1997). There are numerous subspecies and
infrasubspecific names for populations of this fish in northern Europe
(Berg, 1948-1949). The origin of the Iranian specimens is unknown so
it is not clear which subspecies or species they belong to and accordingly
information on biology is of a general nature.
Key characters
This species is the only one in its genus reported from Iran and is
recognisable by the generic characters above.
Morphology
The mouth is small, inferior and lacks evident teeth. Lateral line
scales are 84-105. The dorsal fin has 3-5 unbranched and 8-13 branched
rays, the anal fin has 3-5 unbranched and 11-15 branched rays and the
caudal fin has a strong fork. Gill rakers are sparse and short or long
and dense, denticulated or not, and number 21-56, with means and form
varying between subspecies. Vertebrae number 56-64. The chromosome
number is 2n=80 (Klinkhardt et al., 1995).
Sexual dimorphism
Males may bear rows of elongate tubercles on the scales.
Colour
The back and upper head is a dark bluish-grey, blue-green or dark
green, flanks are greenish-grey to silvery and the belly is silvery to
yellowish-white. Fine speckles may be apparent on the body. The snout
is black. The iris is white. The dorsal, anal, adipose and caudal fins
are dark while the pectoral and pelvic fins are only dark at the tips.
Size
Attains 70 cm and 8 kg.
Distribution
The native distribution of this species is in northern Europe and
Siberia, in particular the drainages of the Baltic, North, Barents and
White seas with isolated populations in central Europe in mountainous areas.
Fingerlings were released into the Karaj and Latian reservoirs near
Tehran from 1965-1968 after hatching from eggs imported from Europe (Armantrout,
1980). Walczak (1972) reports some existing still in the Karaj
Reservoir but none were found in the Latian. It was also introduced to
the Manjil Dam on the Safid River (Griffiths et al., 1972) but
this reservoir is drained to remove excess silt and no fishery exists
(J. Holčík, pers. comm., 1992). There is no evidence of reproduction. Saadati
(1977) states that they were established in both reservoirs. Also
reported from the Farahnaz Reservoir, Markazi. Abdoli (2000)
depicts the Karaj River and the Abhar River as harbouring this species.
Zoogeography
An exotic species not naturally occurring in Iran.
Habitat
This species is typically an inhabitant of large and deep lakes
where its oxygen requirments are quite high. However it is tolerant of
warm water and even a measure of pollution. Spawning may occur in
rivers tributary to the lake. Anadromous forms occur but are rare in
full seawater.
In lakes during the day, it is found at depths of 20-30 m or on the
bottom if water is shallower. At night it may rise as far as the
surface following the migrating plankton or to the waters edge in the
shallows. Schools form in sub-littoral areas during the spawning
season and strandings may occur.
Age and growth
Maximum age attained is 20+ years although in some populations most
fish are 1+ to 3+ years old while in others most fish are 7+ to 10+
years old. Under good conditions young can attain 10-12 cm after one
year and 15-20 cm after two years of life. Maturity is attained at 3-5
years and 25-35 cm.
Food
Plankton is the principal food item, with benthic crustaceans being
taken in brackish water and crustaceans, molluscs and insect larvae in
rivers. This species cannibalises its own eggs and eats the eggs of
other fishes. Feeding may vary through the year, planktonic
crustaceans being taken in summer and benthic invertebrates in winter.
Reproduction
There is a spawning migration which may occur in summer but more
usually peaks in autumn. Spawning takes place in summer, autumn or
winter, varying with the subspecies or form. Summer spawning takes
place in deeper water than winter spawning. In lakes, the adult males
enter the spawning grounds at dusk, these grounds being gravelly
shoals off headlands or on offshore reefs. Some populations spawn over
sand or even mud. Females move in each night as they ripen. The yellow
eggs are 2-3 mm in diameter and slightly adhesive. They stick to
gravel and are protected from predators by falling in crevices between
the gravel. Up to 82,250 eggs may be laid. Eggs incubate for 90-100
days during winter at an optimum temperature of 6°C or less.
Parasites and predators
None reported from Iran.
Economic importance
Robins et al. (1991) list this species as important to North
Americans. Importance is based on its use in aquaculture and as food
in Europe and Russia. It has been widely introduced to reservoirs.
Conservation
No conservation of this exotic species is advisable.
Further work
The survival of this species in Iran should be verified.
Sources
Based on general European literature.
Iranian material: None.
Comparative material: BM(NH) 1986.11.14:1-3, 3, ca. 312-330 mm standard
length, England, Cumbria, Lake Haweswater (no other locality data).
Genus Oncorhynchus
Suckley, 1861
Members of this genus are found naturally in the Northern Pacific
Ocean and its drainages, migrating between fresh and salt water. Some
live permanently in fresh water. There are about 12 species and two have
been successfully introduced to Iran.
This genus is characterised by a large mouth, in adults extending
back to the level of the posterior eye margin or further, scales are small, ca.
100 or more in the lateral line, lateral line scales are as large or larger than
scales in adjacent rows and overlap with scales in front and behind, evident
teeth in adults, teeth are present on the head and shaft of the vomer bone in
the roof of the mouth, usually dark parr marks in young but adults without
snow-white leading edge to lower fins, and usually black spots on the body or
caudal fin or both.
These salmons spawn once and then die. They are important commercially as food and as sport fishes.
Oncorhynchus gorbuscha
(Walbaum, 1792)
Introduced to the former Soviet Caspian Sea basin in 1963 but not observed subsequently (Baltz, 1991). No Iranian record.
Oncorhynchus keta
(Walbaum, 1792)
Common names
azad mahi keta (= keta free fish or keta salmon, azad mahi being
the Farsi for trout or salmon), mahi-ye azad-e chum.
[chum salmon, dog salmon, keta, summer chum].
Systematics
Salmo keta was originally described from rivers of Kamchatka, Russia.
Key characters
This species is distinguished by having 124-153 lateral line
scales, 13-17 principal anal fin rays, flanks and caudal fin without
distinct black spots, short, stout gill rakers 18-26 and pyloric caeca 135-249.
Morphology
Dorsal fin with 10-14 principal rays, pectoral rays 14-16 and
pelvic rays 10-11. Scales are horizontal ovals with a central focus
and no radii. Circuli are fine but are lost or only partly developed
on the flesh-covered exposed part of the scale. The gill rakers reach
just beyond the first to just beyond the second raker when appressed.
The pelvic axillary scale is very elongate. The gut is s-shaped. The
chromosome number is 2n=74 (Klinkhardt et al., 1995).
Sexual dimorphism
Breeding males develop hooked jaws and large teeth and a slight
hump in front of the dorsal fin.
Colour
Marine fish are steel-blue on the back and upper flank, silvery on
the flank and silvery-white on the belly. The upper flank and back may
have fine black speckles but no spots. The pectoral, pelvic, anal and
caudal fins have dark edges. Spawning males in fresh water are dark
olive to black above, greyish-red to brick-red on the flank with
greenish to purplish bars or blotches and a dark grey belly. Calico is
the characteristic colour of dominant males. The anal and pelvic fins
are often tipped with white. Females are less strongly marked. Young
chum are iridescent, mottled green on the back and silvery iridescent
green on the flanks and belly. There are 6-14 parr marks which do not
descend much below the lateral line and are narrower than the space
between them. Fins are clear to white.
Size
Reaches 108.8 cm and 20.8 kg.
Distribution
Found from Alaska to California on the Pacific coast of North
America and also in eastern Arctic Siberia, the Beaufort Sea and south
to the Sea of Japan, the widest distribution of any Pacific salmon.
This species was introduced to the former Soviet Caspian Sea in 1962-1970
in an attempt to offset losses of Salmo trutta caspius which
was cut off from its spawning grounds by dams. It was considered as
ideal because it spawns in the lower reaches of rivers and dams would
not affect its spawning migration, it returns to spawn after 2 or 3
years and so some year-classes could escape detrimental conditions in
any one year, and because it produces downstream migrants at a smaller
size and age than the native salmonid (Magomedov, 1970; 1978; Baltz,
1991). 7.5 million fertilised eggs were transported from the Amur
River and Sakhalin Island in the former Soviet Far East and incubated at the Samur Fish Farm, Dagestan. 5,850,000 fry were released.
Walczak (1972) reported capture of a specimen in Iranian waters in
1971, presumably a stray from the former Soviet stocking programmes. Holčík and
Razavi (1992) record only two specimens from Iran, one in 1964 and
one in 1972, taken between Bandar Anzali and the Astara River on the
Iranian coast of the Caspian Sea. They also seem to indicate another
specimen taken after 1972. Jolodar and Abdoli (2004) report it from Astara and
the Anzali regions, indicating no large scale spread.
Zoogeography
A species introduced to Iranian waters by man.
Habitat
In North America, chum salmon enter streams on the spawning
migration and often travel less than 150 km, stopping at the first
barrier as they are not strong jumpers. Some fish even spawn in tidal
areas. However some rivers, like the Yukon, have a run which travels
about 3200 km and takes from early June to the end of September. A
migratory speed of up to 115 km/day has been recorded with bursts of
speed to 4.6 m/s. Most runs are in the fall but some are in the
summer. Very rarely a chum will become trapped in a lake if an outlet
stream dries up but normally adult chum are only found in fresh waters
on the spawning run.
Age and growth
Reproduction occurs at ages 1+ to 2+, with spawning fish at 2+
predominating in Caspian populations from former Soviet waters. In
their native streams in the Far East fish are in their fourth and
fifth years of life. 1500 adults were caught returning to one river to
spawn in the Caspian in 1966, considered impressive by former Soviet
biologists. Accelerated growth and maturity in transplanted fish is
well documented (Magomedov, 1970). There is a 15C°
difference between the Caspian and native water temperatures for
spawning and egg development. Life span in Canada is about 7 years,
perhaps 9 years, with fish in British Columbia maturing at 1-6 years
with age 3 fish dominant. They spend 2-7 years at sea before returning
to spawn. Males grow faster and larger than females.
Food
Food in the sea includes crustaceans, worms, molluscs, squids,
jellyfish and fishes. Young fish in the sea take zooplankton. Adults
on the spawning run do not feed. Young fish in fresh water eat aquatic
insects, such as chironomids, mayflies and caddisflies, as well as
crustaceans, worms and terrestrial insects.
Reproduction
Transplantations into the former Soviet Caspian Sea basin were not very
successful because of a lack of suitable spawning streams (McNeil,
1979). Spawning runs into some former Soviet streams were recorded from the
first half of September to the end of October, the same periods as in
the native habitat (Magomedov, 1970). Males arrived first, the mass
run was composed more of females and there were more males at the end
of the run. Since a single male will spawn with several females, early
male arrival on the spawning grounds may promote successful
fertilisation. The absolute fecundity of a 3+ salmon was 2739 eggs in
the Caspian.
Females excavate a redd by lying on their sides and lashing the
tail. The redd is a trough up to about half a metre deep and up to 3.2
m long and 2.1 m wide bordered by a ridge of gravel at the downstream
end. In some cases no redd is excavated and eggs are shed over and
between boulders. Females may excavate more than one redd and males
may spawn with more than one female. A female and one dominant male
lie in the redd, gape their mouths, vibrate and release eggs and
sperm. The dominant male may have several accessory males accompanying
him. The female dislodges gravel at the upstream end of the redd to
cover the eggs. The orange eggs are up to 7.8 mm in diameter (perhaps
9.5 mm when fertilised) and each female may shed up to 7779 in the
Pacific basin. The adult fish die after spawning and may live only a
week after first entering fresh water. The fry emerge from the gravel
in March-May in North America, some remaining for several weeks in
fresh water or immediately migrating to the sea.
Parasites and predators
Various insects, fish, birds and mammals prey on both young and adult chum.
Economic importance
It is too rare to have any economic importance in Iran. Total
catches in the North Pacific Ocean have been as high as 69.2 million
fish annually. In Japan it is very important in an ocean ranch industry.
Conservation
The presence of this species in Iranian waters is the result of
former Soviet attempts to acclimatise it to the Caspian Sea as a potential
replacement for declining stocks of Salmo trutta caspius. The
stocking programme lasted from 1962 to 1979 and rivers along the
Dagestan coast showed mass spawning but this became rare. Pollution by
wood from forestry operations in Dagestan, absence of suitable gravel
beds, low salinity in the Caspian Sea and heavy surf on the Dagestan
coast may be responsible for the heavy mortality (Magomedov, 1978; Holčík
and Razavi, 1992). As an exotic species, there is no need for
conservation of chum salmon.
Further work
Reports of this species in Iranian waters should be documented.
Sources
Bakkala (1970) summarised the biology of this species in North
American waters and Salo in Groot and Margolis (1991) over its whole range.
Iranian material: None.
Oncorhynchus kisutch
(Walbaum, 1792)
Introduced to the Caspian Sea basin but not subsequently observed and no Iranian records (Holčík and Razavi, 1992).
Oncorhynchus mykiss
(Walbaum, 1792)
Lorestan fish farm specimen, north of Aleshtar (golden form), 3 December 2000
Common names
قزل آل (= gazalala, ghezel ala, qezel ala or kizil ala; probably in confusion with native Salmo trutta,
these words meaning literally red spots or red spot fish but used for trout and salmon species in Iran),
قزل آلاي رنگين كمان (qezel ala-ye ranginkhaman,
meaning rainbow trout).
[mykiss in Russian; rainbow trout, steelhead trout].
Systematics
Salmo mykiss was originally described from Kamchatka, Russia.
Formerly known as Salmo gairdneri Richardson, 1836 (see
Bailey and Robins, 1988; Smith and Stearley, 1989). Placed in the
genus Parasalmo Vladykov, 1972 by Reshetnikov et al.
(1997) and Mednikov et al. (1999) but Osinov (1999) has
reservations since allozyme data show specific level differences with Oncorhynchus
although further studies were deemed necessary.
Key characters
This species is distinguished by having 100-161 lateral line
scales, 8-12 principal anal fin rays, the vomer bone in the roof of
the mouth has teeth on its head and shaft, no red spots on the body
but only small dark ones and radiating rows of black spots on the
dorsal and caudal fins, and no teeth at the tongue base.
Morphology
Dorsal fin principal rays 10-12, pectoral rays 11-17 and pelvic
rays 9-10. Gill rakers 16-22. Pyloric caeca 27-80. The chromosome
number is 2n=58-62 (Klinkhardt et al., 1995).
Sexual dimorphism
Breeding males have an elongated snout, the lower jaw is hooked and the roof of the mouth is white.
Colour
Overall colour is very variable. Stream fish are darker and more
colourful (rainbows) than lighter, silvery lake or sea fish
(steelhead). Some sea-run and lake fish have small orange to red marks
below the lower jaw. The back and upper flank are steel-blue,
greenish, silvery-olive or even brown, flanks and belly are silvery,
grey, white or yellow-green. The side of the head and the flank are
characteristically pink. The flank has a broad pink to red or lilac
stripe with small black spots. The adipose fin has a black margin and
a few spots. Pectoral, pelvic and anal fins may have a few spots and
are dusky without any strong markings. Pectoral and pelvic fins are
often orange-red. Spawning fish are very dark and the flank stripe is
dark red or purple. The young have 5-13 dark, oval parr marks centred
on the lateral line with the spaces between the marks wider than the
marks. There are 5-10 parr marks on the back in front of the dorsal
fin. The upper flank has some dark spots. The dorsal fin is tipped
white or orange and has a dark leading edge, sometimes broken up into
spots. The adipose fin has a black margin. The anal fin has a white or
orange tip. Some adults in streams do not lose their parr marks. A
golden form occurs rarely on fish farms in Lorestan and elsewhere is
farmed specifically.
Size
Reaches 122.0 cm and 25.8 kg as sea-run or lake fish but smaller in streams.
Distribution
Found in western Canada and from Japan and Alaska to Mexico. Widely
introduced outside this natural range world-wide in suitable waters. They have been introduced to the
former Soviet part of the Caspian
Sea in 1973 and several hundred returning adults were reported in 1975 (McNeil, 1979; Baltz, 1991).
Rainbow trout were introduced to Iran about 1966 for hatchery
production as a commercial product (MacCrimmon, 1971; 1972). They are
now widespread in Iran, stocks being maintained by hatchery
introductions and sometimes natural reproduction, wherever temperature
regimes are suitable in the higher reaches of the Alborz and Zagros
mountains (Walczak, 1972; Anonymous, 1977; B. Sandford, in litt.,
1979; Y. Keivany, in litt., 1992; Ghorbani Chafi, 2000; personal visits to fish farms).
B. Sandford considered few populations became established because of competition with large
populations of omnivorous cyprinids which also take fish eggs,
presumably of trout too. Sandford cited viable populations in the Madar Su, a small stream in the former Mohammad Reza Shah
Park (see below), Tar Lake in the Alborz (also recorded from Tar Lake by Riahi (1996)),
Gahar Lake in the Zagros and the Qara Chai west of Hamadan.
Introductions to Neuer or Neur Lake near Ardabil, Ghorighol Lake,
Rebeshahr and the Ab-e Bazuft were all failures (although Walczak
(1972), Saadati (1977) and R. Mehrani (pers comm., 2000) report several successful stockings
including the Ab-e Bazuft, Gahar Lake, Namrud, Dez River and Jajehrud).
Also reported from the Gorgan and Haraz rivers and Gorgan Bay (the latter escapees
from cages)(Kiabi et al., 1999), Madar Su, Golestan National Park (Kiabi et al., 1994),
from the Farahnaz Reservoir, Markazi, Namrud in Semnan, Golestan
River, Karaj River, Amir Kabir Dam (www.iran-doe.org/Special/Alborz.htm), Shah
Abbas Dam west of Esfahan, Darius-e Kabir Dam north of Shiraz, Karaj River,
Zayandeh near Esfahan, Rebeshahr southeast of Yasuj (Anonymous, 1977; Y. Keivany, in litt.,
1992). An attempt to culture this species in cages in the Avan River, 7 km from
Alamut, in 1994 failed and fish escaped (Nialmir, 2001). Also in the Sardab Rud (Jalali et al., 2005).
An attempt to establish a run of steelhead, the migratory form, in
the Chalus River from the Caspian Sea was apparently unsuccessful (Armantrout, 1980).
This species was stocked in the 1970s by the Iranian Department of the Environment in
the Doogh or Madar Soo, head stream of the Gorgan River in Golestan
National Park and "Neur" Lake in East Azarbayjan near Ardabil in the
Caspian Sea basin; in Ghorigol Lake (east of Tabriz) and the Liqvan Chay in the
Lake Orumiyeh basin; the Karaj River, the Jajrud, the Namrud, Tar Lake northeast of Tehran, Lake Lasem
near Tehran, the Lar River, probably in the Chashmeh Do Barare, Ab Kharsang,
Varangarud and Baragon near Tehran, all in the Namak Lake basin; the Karun
River, Mohammad Reza Shah Dam, Rebeshahr River southeast of Yasuj, the Ab-e Bazuft in 1975 (established), Gahar
Lake in the headwaters of the Dez River and its outlet stream (established, caught by A. Abdoli in
1995), and an isolated section of the Dez River formerly fishless (established),
all in the Tigris River basin; the Shah Abbas Dam west of Esfahan, in the Zianrud
(presumably the Zayandeh River of the Esfahan basin) where a reproducing population
was established; in the Dorudzan (Dariush-e Kabir) Dam near Shiraz (104,000 in Esfand
1350)(Surber, 1969; Anonymous, 1977; Armantrout, 1980; Petr, 1987; Abdoli, 1993b).
Qanats in Markazi Province were stocked with 930,000 trout (presumably this
species) in 2006 (www.iranfisheries.net, downloaded 28 July 2006).The qanats
were in Shazand (2 qanats), Arak (4), Delijan (1) and Khomein (1).
Abdoli (2000) lists the Kavir and Yazd basins generally, the upper Kashaf River in the
Tedzhen River basin, the Gorgan, lower Neka, middle and lower Babol, and Heraz
rivers in the Caspian Sea basin; the upper Talkheh,
Tatavi and Zarrineh rivers in the Lake Orumiyeh basin, the Abhar stretch of the Shur
and the upper and middle Karaj rivers of the Namak Lake basin; and the Khersan,
upper Dez and Kashkan rivers of the Tigris River basin, and the upper and middle Zayandeh
River of the Esfahan basin.
Zoogeography
An exotic species introduced as a food fish.
Habitat
Rainbows are found in rivers or streams where there are pools and
riffles. Some live in lakes and are called Kamloops trout in Canada
while others run to sea and are called steelheads. They can tolerate
temperatures up to 24°C, warm for a trout, but prefer temperatures below 20°C.
Sea-run fish spend about 1-4 years usually in inshore waters at middle
to surface depths after 1-4 years in fresh water. Some fish (half-pounders)
return to streams after a few months at sea. Summer steelhead have
spent one winter at sea and return in summer (April-October) to spawn
next spring while winter steelhead are larger and return from December
to April peaking in January to spawn in March and April. Aquaculture of trout in
Iran is affected by drought conditions reducing water flow to farms. Production
was higher in 1999 compared to the previous year but this was because 82 new
farms were opened; average production per farm fell (Foghi, 2004).
Age and growth
Life span varies with habitat, up to 11 years in some lake fish but
only 3-4 years in many streams and small lakes. Growth varies with
habitat including such factors as length of sea, stream or lake life,
years before spawning, available food supplies, latitude, altitude,
temperature regime, competition with other salmonids, and so on.
Ageing these fish may be difficult because of the complicated life
history pattern of stream and lake residency. Maturity is also
variable with habitat. Some males mature at 9 months in fish
introduced to warm southern waters and some females only at 8 years,
but generally maturity is reached at 3-5 years in Canada, for example,
with males maturing a year earlier than females. Neur Lake fish had a
growth rate of 17 lbs (7.72 kg) in 3 years, more than doubling in
size, because of the excellent food supply of shrimp. In Tar Lake,
where food resources were poor, mostly surface insects, fish grew to
only 3-5 lbs (1.4-2.3 kg) in 2 years (Anonymous, 1977). In the Karaj
Reservoir, one-year-old fish with a length of 8-10 cm grew to 25 cm in
one year although the available food was only plankton.
Esmaeili and Ebrahimi (2006) give a significant length-weight relationship based
on 111 Iranian fish measuring 27.5-57.0 cm standard length. The a-value
was 0.0161 and the b-value 3.044 (a b-value < 3 indicating a fish
that becomes less rotund as length increases and a b-value >3 indicating
a fish that becomes more rotund as length increases).
Food
Food includes plankton, crustaceans, aquatic and terrestrial
insects, snails, leeches, salmon eggs, and other fishes. The fish
eaten enhance growth and the species taken depends on what is
available. In Lorestan, this species thrives in rivers where Gammarus
is numerous, e.g. near Dow Ab-e Aleshtar. Fish and squid are taken at
sea along with some crustaceans. Abdoli (2000) lists Trichoptera, Plecoptera,
Chironomidae, Ephemeroptera, Ceratopogonidae, Odonata, Simuliidae, Coleoptera,
Decapoda and Amphipoda as food in Iran.
Reproduction
Spawning takes place from March to August but is usually in spring.
North American Great Lakes fish may spawn from late December to late
April. Water temperature for spawning usually exceeds 10°C
but may be 5-13°C. A female excavates a redd by lying on her side and thrashing her tail.
Redd excavation occurs during the day and night and dimensions are
usually longer and deeper than the female's body. A male courts a
female by rubbing his snout and body against her, by vibrating, by
swimming over her in the redd and by pressing against her. Several
males are found around each female but one male is dominant. The
spawning act lasts 5-8 seconds with the pair parallel in the redd
pressed together, both fish gape, arch and vibrate. Other males may
shed sperm. The female covers the eggs with gravel by dislodging it
from the upstream end of the redd. Most spawning takes place in the
morning and evening and nests may be abandoned during the day. Females
construct several redds and may spawn with several males. Eggs are
orange or pink, 5.0 mm in diameter and up to 12,749 in number.
However, egg numbers are usually a few hundreds to thousands per
female. The eggs hatch in about 8 weeks and fry generally emerge in
June to August from spring spawnings. Repeat spawning can occur for up
to 5 years.
Nematollahi and Azari Takami (2002) studied the quality and quantity of
seminal fluid in cultured male broodstock specimens of this species at the Karaj
Fish Farm. Differences were found between stocks in sperm motility and concentration.
Parasites and predators
A wide variety of other fishes and birds feed on this species and
there have been extensive studies on parasites and diseases of this
commercially important species. Akhlagi (1999, www.mondialvet99.com,
downloaded 31 May 2000) reports infectious pancreatic and
haemotopoitic necrosis in fish from Bovir Ahmadi va Kohkiluyeh Province but not in Fars Province. Liver and intestinal submucosa
degeneration and kidney necrosis were observed in diseased fish.
Prearo and Ghittino (1993) record a case of lipid liver degeneration in cultured
trout. Asadzadeh Mangili (2000) records ichthyobodosis in 3 cm fry from a
farm in Bovir Ahmadi va Kohkiluyeh. The mortality rate was
40% and infection rate with Ichthyobodo was 100%. Rainbow trout
fed on raw marine fishmeal powder in Fars Province were found to be
more exposed to vibiosis (pathogenic Vibrio anguillarum)(Ghazi
and Akhlaghi, 1998). Diplostomiasis (infection with Diplostomum
spathaceum) is reported from cultured trout in West Azarbayjan (Asadzadeh
Manjili and Ghorbanzad, 1999). Zorriehzahra (2002) reports on diseases in farmed
fry and Zorriehzahra et al. (2002) record enteric redmouth disease in
farmed fish around Tehran. Akhondzadeh Basti and Zahrae Salehi (2003) show that the
psychotropic pathogen Listeria monocytogenes is found in market and fish
farm samples of this species. Soltani and Rostami (1997) record a mortality level of about 16% for farmed
trout in northern Iran infected with a Cytophaga/Flexibacter-like
bacterium. Soltani et al. 1999) report a yersinosis-like infection in
farmed Iranian rainbow trout. Jalali et al. (2005) summarise the occurrence of Gyrodactylus
species in Iran and record G. derjavini from fish in the Sardab-rud.
Asadzadeh Mangili (2001) describes gas bubble disease from fish farms in
Kermanshah Province. Mortality occurred mostly in fish at 100-200g and symptoms
included inappetition, skin darkening, aggregation of fish at inlets and outlets
in the ponds, and swimming near the surface. In 20% of the samples, unilateral
or bilateral exophthalmia was observed. High day-night fluctuations in the
oxygen and carbon dioxide content of the pond water was observed through
excessive plant growth. Abdi et al. (2006) recorded the first mortality
from acanthocephalosis with Pomphorhynchus laevis in fish farms in Maku,
West Azarbayjan.
Economic importance
This species is commercially farmed in Iran for local sale.
Experimental studies in the 220 ha "Neur", "Neuer"
or "Noor" Lake near Ardabil have shown very good production
of this species. A growth rate of 17 lbs (7.72 kg) in 3 years was
reported (Anonymous, 1977). A yield of 160 kg/ha was obtained and a
catch of 35,000 kg reported (Saadati, 1977) but this was unusual in
that there were no other fish and food supplies were extensive. The
lake is subject to winter-kill and requires stocking and/or helixers
to maintain open water in winter (Bullock, 1971; Nehring, 1973b;
1973c; 1973d; 1974b; 1974c; 1974d; 1974e; 1974f; 1975b; 1975c; 1975d;
1975e; 1975f; 1975g; Nehring et al., 1974; Abbasi, 1974; 1975;
Boettcher, 1974a; 1974b; Sanford, 1975; Harrington, 1976).
Kohnehchahry and Heydarpur (1973) outline methods of raising trout
using submerged cages which they believe would be suitable for Iranian
waters. Cage culture has been tried in Gorgan Bay, the fish escaping
during several storms and numbering in the millions (B. Kiabi, pers.
comm., 1994; www.ramsar.org/ram_rpt_37e.htm, downloaded 28 July 2000).
They have also been cage cultured in Valasht Lake, Mazandaran where 12
cages were expected to produce 22 tonnes of fish (Abzeeyan,
Tehran, 5(5):IV, 1994). Nezami et al. (2000) give a
total production of fish farms in Gilan, Mazandaran and Golestan provinces
(along the Caspian Sea) as 851 t.
The "Kelardasht" or Kalerdasht" Fish Farm (= Shaheed
Bahonar Trout Farm of Shilat, the Iranian Fisheries Company, near
Kelardasht) has an annual production capacity of 2,500,000 fingerlings
of 2 g. Various other fish farms in Iran produce rainbow trout for
stocking (Surber, 1969; Krasznai, 1987; Petr, 1987). More recently,
Bartley and Rana (1998b) give a figure for the Kelardasht Farm of 3
million fingerlings from a pool of 2000 brood fish at a cost of 600
million rials. White (1988) reported that 60 ha of trout ponds and
raceways produced 1000 t a year (see also under Cyprinus
carpio). The largest fish farm in Lorestan produced 500 t a year
in 2000. Edwards (1989) reported production of 1750 t from 20 licensed
farms with a further 1000 t from unlicensed farms. Fingerling
"trout" production (probably rainbow trout) in government
hatcheries was 0.57 million in 1984, 1.81 million in 1985, 1.57
million in 1986, 3.02 million in 1987, 0.50 million in 1988, 4.23
million in 1989, 4.34 million in 1990, 1.90 million in 1991, and 2.00
million in 1992 (Emadi, 1993a). Fingerling production in 1996 was 6
million (Bartley and Rana, 1998a). Production of this trout increased
27% per year betwen 1991 and 1996, the raceway area for trout
increased from 80,000 to 166,000 sq m between 1992 and 1996 and
production increased from 775 to 1900 t (Rana and Bartley,
1998a). For comparison, the figures for carps (probably Chinese carps)
exceeded 100 million and for mahi safid (Rutilus frisii kutum)
it was 145 million. However there are also private commercial
hatcheries producing about 750 t of trout each year. The Jajrud
Hatchery near Tehran produced 1 million fingerlings as early as 1968
as well as several thousand marketable sized fish (Surber, 1969); and
there has been a considerable expansion of hatchery capacity in Iran
since that time. Rainbow trout production is only about 5% of total
aquaculture production although value per metric tonne is U.S.$14,000
while for carp it is U.S.$10,000. Trout production in Ilam Province was
estimated at 3.3 million fish based on 21 farms (Tehran Times, 8 August 2005,
downloaded 20 January 2006).
Rana and Bartley (1998a; 1998b) outline trout aquaculture methods
and problems in Iran. Most culture of this trout takes place in the
Alborz and Zagros mountains which are cooler because of altitude.
Farms are small, producing less than 50 tonnes per year. Raceways are
used for breeding, rearing of larvae and growing out. Eyed eggs may be
imported from Scotland and Norway but this may be banned in future
because of disease risks. Increased Iranian expertise and costs may
also favour production of eyed eggs in Iran. Survival to the eyed
stage attains 80% and to the alevin stage 70%. The private sector
produced 10 million fingerlings in 1996. The Manzanarbad Trout Farm
near Kelardasht sold 2 million fingerlings in 1997 and produced 25 t
for local consumption from 2000 sq m of concrete raceways (Bartley and
Rana, 1998b). The Mahi Sera Fish Farm at Karaj produces market sized
fish from 20,000 brood stock (Bartley and Rana, 1998b). These are
replaced every 2-3 years to maintain growth rates. About 5000 fish are
saved each year as next year's brood stock based on size, form and
colour. Milt from 4 males is used to fertilise eggs from one female.
In 1997, the farm produced 185 t of fish each weighing about 250
g (= 800,000 fish). Sale price is 10,000-12,000 rials/kg. The
production cycle is 9-10 months at 13°C.
Trout are fed commercial pellets with a conversion efficiency of
1:1.1-1.4 (wet:dry weight). Growth to marketable size (about 30 cm and
at least 225 g) takes 9-14 months depending on temperature (2-13°C)
at different localities. Feed deficiencies, poor genetic stocks and
low temperatures contribute to slow growth in some farms. Production
in raceways is nevertheless about 15kg/cu m, a good efficiency. Cost
of fingerlings to grow out farms is 120 rials for a 1 g fry, 250 rials
for a 5 g fry and 15 rials/g for heavier fish (Bartley and Rana, 1998b).
There is no consistent monitoring of released fish so the success
of stocking is unknown. The Dorudzan Reservoir about 100 km from
Shiraz has received 400,000 fry in 1970, 2 million in 1972, 300,000
from Australia in 1974, 100,000 in 1984 and 100,000 in 1985 (Petr,
1987). Experimental fishing in 1976 gave a poor return, perhaps
through competition for space with native Capoeta species,
heavy poaching during migration into the inflowing river, and lowering
of the reservoir level. Eggs are no longer imported and the supplies
are spawned in Iran (Emadi, 1993b).
Artificial breeding of this species at the Shahid Motahary Fish
Hatchery in Yasuj has been carried out 4-5 months earlier than normal
using changes in light regime and hormones. The object of this work
was to produce fingerlings throughout the year, increase production
and save on production costs (Abzeeyan, Tehran, 7(5):IV, 1996).
Dehghani and Akbari (1997) have successfully carried out gonadectomies
on this species under field conditions.
A production of 5.5-8.0 tonnes of rainbow trout in rice paddies
during winter has been recorded (Iranian Fisheries Research
Organization Newsletter, 22:2, 2000).
Production in Ilam Province was estimated at to be 3.3 million fish by the end
of Iranian year 2005 (http://agriculturenews.faorne.net,
downloaded 11 April 2006).
Culture of this species in earthern ponds at Bafgh in Yazd Province
used running, saline ground water unsuitable for drinking or
agriculture. Production was 2-4 tonnes/ha in 0.40-0.75 ha ponds with
salinity at 10-15‰, well water temperature 24ºC
reduced to usually less than 20ºC, with a water replacement of 5-10% per day for
a period of 5-6 months in autumn and winter. The highest growth performance was
from fish fed 35% protein, 430 Kcal/100g energy diet and 20.6% lipid with P/E
ratio of 81.4 mg protein/Kcal energy. Aeration had no significant effects on
growth (Iranian Fisheries Research Oraganization Newsletter, 25:4, 2000; Ahmadi and Alizadeh, 2004; Bahabadi, 2006).
A total of 500,000 fingerlings in fish ponds were released in a two month period in 2005, expected to result in 220 t
of product (www.growfish.org/Iranianreport.html).
Gonad development was found to be accelerated in brackish water, males maturing
two months earlier than in fresh water and ovarian development also being
accelerated in Yazd fish (Fahlati Marvast et al., 2003; Fahlati Marvast et al., 2006).
Edwards (1989) gives details on culturing this species and the
problems to overcome. Abtahi et al. (2002) found clove oil had no
significant difference with MS222, another anaesthetic used in fish farms. Sajedi et al. (2003) have examined mtDNA in Iranian
hatchery stocks to measure inter- and intra-populational diversity as an aid in
fishery management by selection of the best broodstocks. Studies on the best
foods and conditions for this trout in Iran have been undertaken by various
authors. Kenari and Mirzakhani (2005) examined the effects of using Artemia
urmiana from Lake Urmia (= Orumiyeh) enriched with n-3 HUFA, a fatty acid not present in the brine
shrimp, as a larval food. Growth and survival was better than with non-enriched
shrimp or with artificial feed. All-female diploid and triploid rainbow trout
have been produced in Iran, such trout being unable to reproduce if escaping
from fish farms (Johari, 2005). Ahmadi et al. (2005) used the Caspian Sea
amphipod, Pontogammarus maeoticus, in rainbow trout food as a means of
improving muscle pigmentation, the reddish colour from carotenoids in this
dietary item enhancing market value. Carotenoid deposition was higher in males
(R. Khodarahami in 5th International Symposium on Sturgeon, Iranian Fisheries
Research Organization, 9-13 May 2005, Ramsar). Alavi Yeganeh et al. (2004) studied the use
of gammarid powder as a dietary item and its effects in reducing stress in trout
larvae, finding a 10% supplement to be effective. Supplementary levels of 2 and
4% of the amphipod were effective in improving flesh colour. Fani (2006a) found
fishmeal to have higher digestible and metabolizable energy than soybean meal as
feed. Fani (2006b) examined the use of oil by-product from soybeans on weight
gain, feed conversion ratio and flesh chemical composition, recommending 10% oil
by-product be added to the diet. Shadnoush (2006) showed that corn meal could be
used as a nutrient in trout diet, improving weight and length. Kalbassi et al.
(2004) induced tetraploidy using heat shock. Johari et al. (2006)
investigated production of all-female trout using sex-reversed males and found
this to be one of the best methods. Zamani et al. (2006) showed that
chromosome manipulation (triploidy) had no effects on digestive enzyme activity.
In addition to these reports, there have been a wide variety of studies in
Iran on methods and treatments relevant to culturing rainbow trout, briefly
summarised here. Sharifian (1998) studied increases in cortisol hormone levels
in trout as a measure of stress caused by handling and induced spawning. Azari Takami et al. (2002)
and Dorafshan et al. (2006) examined induction of gynogenesis by UV
radiation, Dorafshan et al. (2002) induced spawning by use of a GnRH
analogue, Farhangi et al. (2003) on the use of natural zeolites for reducing
ammonia toxicity, Bazyar Lakeh et al. (2005) on the effect of dietary astaxanthin on fertilisation rate,
Johari et al. (2003) on sperm traits and fertilisation performance of
normal males and neomales, Vahdati et al. (2001) on optimal conditions
for phagocytic activity of granulocytes, Vahdati et al. (2001) on
crowding stress and haematological parameters, Akhlagi (2002) on vaccination
against streptococcosis, Yakhchali (2002) on the abundance of the parasite
Ichthyophthirius multifilis on coldwater fish farms (which produce trout
mostly), Ebrahimi (2004; 2005) on the deleterious effects of copper, cadmium and
zinc, pollutants, on sperm anatomy and motility, Zorriehzahra (2006) on fry
mortality syndrome from 52 fish farms and hatcheries across Iran, Sheikhi
Moghaddam et al. (2004) on the use of alvita (sodium di-acetate) as a
fungicide and bactericide, Mirvaghefi et al. (2000) on hydrogen peroxide
for fungal control on eggs, Lorestany et al. (2004) on activating
solutions and their effects on sperm motility and fertilisation rate, Azari
Takami and Meshkini (2006) on the nutritional effects on trout larvae of vitamin
C-enriched Artemia urmiana nauplii in relation to growth, survival and
environmental stress, Gholipour et al. (2006) found a density of 62 fish
per square metre was optimal in concrete ponds for weight gain and feed
conversion, Johari and Kalbassi (2006) on alterations in the red blood cells of triploid trout,
Mirzakhani and Mahmood Abad (2006) found feeding n-3HUFA enriched Artemia
nauplii to larvae increased resistance to environmental stress (pH and
temperature), Safari and Boldaji (2006) examined use of canola meal as a partial
replacement for fishmeal to reduce cost of diets, Yarahmadi and Moghadasi (2006)
on use of decapsulated cysts of Artemia urmiana in the larval diet,
Mirzakhani et al. (2006) studied the feeding of n-3HUFA enriched
Artemia nauplii as food for larvae used to increase resistance to
environmental stress from pH and temperature, Geramy et al. (2007) on photoperiod on growth, survival and feeding
parameters in larvae, Rezaei et al. (2007) on bacterial changes and the biogenic amines found in
farmed trout stored on ice, Soltani et al. (2007) on vaccination against
Streptococcus iniae infection, Yousefian (2008) on genetic parameters of
growth, Shafaeipour et al. (2008) on the effects of dietary canola meal
on physiology and biochemistry as it can be used to replace substantial levels
of fish meal in food, etc.
The Department of the Environment has arranged fishing matches for
this trout in the Lar Dam since 1994 (www.iran-doe.org/Special/LAR.htm,
downloaded 29 December 2000).
Robins et al. (1991) list this species as important to North
Americans. Importance is based on its use in aquaculture and aquaria,
as food, in sport and in textbooks. Rainbows have been used
extensively as research animals as their requirements are well known
and they are readily available from hatcheries. Hatchery fish often
have reduced or absent fins and deformed mouths. Farmed fish are sold
frozen world-wide, the most important trout in this regard. Rainbow
trout are one of the top few sport fishes in North America and of
great commercial importance because of the money spent on gear,
accommodation, transport, etc. by anglers in pursuit of this fish.
Many books and articles have been written on the methods and joy of
catching this trout. The flesh is excellent eating fresh or smoked and
may be red if food is mostly invertebrates or white if food is fishes.
Conservation
Alborz trout have escaped and made their way to the Caspian Sea but
the numbers and impact are unknown (Bartley and Rana, 1998b). This
species is an exotic and does not need conservation but escapees may
affect survival of native species.
Further work
Bartley and Rana (1998b) make various recommendations for the
aquaculture of this species in Iran. The establishment of reproducing
populations in the wild should be carefully monitored because of the
dangers for native species posed by this exotic. Triploid all-female
trout should be considered.
Sources
Sources are summaries of biology in North America such as Scott and
Crossman (1973). Observed on trout farms in Iran but there is little data on escaped Iranian populations.
Iranian material: no preserved material.
Genus Salmo
Linnaeus, 1758
Members of this genus comprise about 25 nominal species found in North
America and Eurasia including the Black, Caspian and Aral seas basins
and the upper, and cooler, reaches of neighbouring basins in Iran and
Turkey including the Euphrates River, and the Orumiyeh and Namak lakes
(Berg, 1948-1949). There is a single described species, native to Iran. These
fishes have teeth on the shaft and head of the vomer bone in the roof of the
mouth (may be lost with age), the jaw is long, reaching to the posterior eye
margin or beyond, scales are small usually more than 100 in the lateral line,
colour is pale silvery with dark markings or spottings, anal fin rays (all
counted) number 15 or less (16 or more in Oncorhynchus), and there are
various unique osteological characters.
These are famous sport fishes and were once caught in commercial quantities. Their biology has been studied extensively
and numerous books and papers have been written about them.
Salmo salar
Linnaeus, 1758
Introduced to the Caspian Sea (Mamaev, 2002). No Iranian record.
Salmo trutta
Linnaeus, 1758
Stuffed specimen, Bandar-e Anzali
Liqvan Chay trout, ca, 27.0 cm total length, 4 October 1994, courtesy of Asghar Abdoli
Liqvan Chay trout, ca, 27.0 cm total length, 4 October 1994, courtesy of Asghar Abdoli
Common names
آزاد ماهي (azad mahi or mahi-ye azad = free fish, used in Farsi
for trout and salmon), ماهي آزاد (= mahi azad), azad mahi qezelala-ye daryacheh khazar (= Caspian Sea
trout), mahi azad Darya-ye Khazar, mahi azad setareh-i Darya-ye Khazar,
all for the subspecies caspius; قزل آلا (= gazalala, ghezel ala or
kizil ala, meaning red spots), قزل آلاي خال قرمز
(= qezelala-ye khalqermez; the Turkic qezel ala is
used in Farsi for trout and hence this last means "trout with red
spots" although literally it is a tautonym, "red spots with
red spots"), mahi azad-ye kezel ala-ye ilbumi (= native salmon
trout), qezel ala khalqermez yabumi, qezel ala-ye juibary (= brook
trout), all apparently for freshwater residents; mahi azade khal sorkh; qezel ala-ye
Liqvanchai (for trout in the Lake Orumiyeh basin).
[gizilxalli or ala-balyk for freshwater residents and gizil balig
or kizil-balyk for sea-run fish in Azerbaijanian; Kaspi azatmahysy or kumja in
Turkmenian; ala-balukh Armenia; Kaspiiskii losos' or Caspian salmon for sea-run fish, and ruch'evaya
forel or brook trout and pestrushka for freshwater residents in
Russian; alabalik in Turkish; massialé in Kurdish; brown trout, brook trout, river trout, Caspian trout].
Systematics
Salmo Trutta was originally described from European rivers. Salmo
caspius Kessler, 1877 was described from the Bozh'em-Promysl (or
Bozhii Promysel) fishing grounds on the Kura River, Azerbaijan with 3
syntypes in the Zoological Institute, St. Petersburg (ZISP). Salmo
spurius Pallas, 1814 from the Terek River in the Caspian Sea
basin, Russia and Salmo lacustris var. Romanovi
Kavraiskii, 1896 from Lake Tabiszchuri in Transcaucasia are usually
regarded as synonyms of Salmo trutta. Salmo trutta ezenami
Berg, 1948 is a subspecies from Lake Ezenam in Dagestan (ZISP 28356)(Dorofeyeva
and Salmanov (2001)) though it may be deserving of species rank (Reshetnikov et al.,
1997). Salmo trutta ciscaucasicus Dorofeyeva, 1967 (see also
Dorofeyeva (1997) and Dorofeyeva and Salmanov (2001)) is described from the Keyranchay (ZISP 26244) and
is found in drainages of the western shore of the Caspian Sea, except
for the Kura River and, presumably, excepting Iranian rivers.
The native brown trout (freshwater populations) and Caspian salmon
(sea-run populations) of Iran are both usually referred to Salmo
trutta caspius Kessler, 1877 in the Caspian Sea and Namak Lake
basins (Saadati, 1977). Derzhavin (1929b) examined two small fish from
the Karaj River of the Namak Lake basin and recognised them as typical
"brook trout" (Salmo trutta). Nümann (1969)
considers that southern Alborz trout originate from Caspian stocks.
Some authors call the species Salmo fario caspius Kessler,
1877, e.g. Dadikyan (1986). Fricke et
al. (2007) regard caspius as a full species.
Tortonese (1954), Kuderskii (1974) and Kottelat (1997) discuss the
confused nomenclature of this species. Boulenger (1896), Berg
(1948-1949) and Derzhavin (1929b) consider Namak Lake basin trout to
be Salmo trutta macrostigma (Dumeril, 1858), originally
described from Algeria as a distinct species. The Namak trout were
supposedly derived from Mediterranean populations via Persian Gulf
drainages but Saadati (1977) dismisses this on the grounds of a close
similarity between Namak and Caspian trout and the apparent absence of
trout from the Zagros Mountains and Persian Gulf drainages of Iran.
Osinov (1988) could not determine a Mediterranean route based on
electrophoretic evidence.
In the Lake Orumiyeh basin, apparently restricted to the "Lighvanchai"
(probably the Liqvan Chay, the town of Liqvan being at 37°50'N, 46°26'E),
is a population of brown trout which has been referred to as a
distinct subspecies (Anonymous, 1977). It has not been formally
described. Saadati (1977) considers all Iranian trout to be S. t.
caspius, with those in the Namak Lake basin being a distinct
"race", with some slight differences to typical S. t.
caspius (see below), and those trout in the Lake Orumiyeh basin
could be a new subspecies.
Earlier authors consider the Caspian basin species to be the same
as the Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar Linnaeus, 1758, but blood
serum electrophoresis (Ostroumova, 1970) support its position as Salmo
trutta as does karyology and osteology (Dorofeyeva, 1965; 1967)
and enzyme electrophoresis (Osinov, 1984; 1988). Osinov and Bernatchez
(1996) consider trout from the Caspian Sea basin to be part of their
"Danubian" grouping, brown trout from the Black, Caspian and
Aral sea basins as opposed to an "Atlantic" grouping from
the Baltic, Barents and White sea basins (and also a tributary of the
upper Volga River in the Caspian Sea basin), based on allozyme and
mtDNA studies.
A artificial hybrid of Salmo trutta caspius with Oncorhynchus
mykiss is reported on by Pourgholam and Noruzy Moghadam (1996).
Key characters
The dark-spotted back, light halos around some of the dark-coloured flank
spots, caudal fin not or only weakly spotted, teeth on the vomer shaft, and only
9-15 total anal fin rays are distinctive.
Morphology
Salmanov (1990) has demonstrated that brook, lake and sea forms of
trout from the Caspian Sea basin differ in head and body proportions
and in fin shapes although no populations in Iran were considered or
given taxonomic status. Osinov (1988) maintains that migratory and
non-migratory populations are the same species.
In the Caspian Sea basin dorsal fin with 3-5 unbranched and 7-12
branched rays, anal fin with 2-5 unbranched and 6-10 branched rays,
pectoral fin with 10-14 branched rays, and pelvic fin with 6-9
branched rays. Lateral line scales 111-132. Gill rakers 16-23. Pyloric
caeca 26-61. Vertebrae 55-61. Scales in lateral series for S. t.
caspius 140-160, vertebrae 59-61 (Derzhavin, 1929b; Behnke, 1965).
See also below under Zoogeography. The chromosome number is
2n=78-84 (Klinkhardt et al., 1995), 2n=80 (Annual Report,
1995-1996, Iranian Fisheries Research and Training Organization,
Tehran, p. 61, 1997; Kalbassi et al., 2006) or 2n=80-82 (Dorofeeva, 1998).
The chromosome formula is 14M + 10SM + 56T with NF=104 (Kalbassi et al., 2006).
Meristic values for Iranian specimens are:- dorsal fin branched rays 9(1), 10(5) or 11(1), anal fin
branched rays 8(7), pectoral fin branched rays 12(7), pelvic fin branched
rays 7(1) or 8(6), and total gill rakers 17(3), 18(3) or 19(1).
The Liqvan Chay fish are similar to S. t. caspius in all
except colour, gill rakers being somewhat higher (18-22, mean 20.2)
and lateral series scales being higher (132-154, mean 142) but sample sizes were small.
Sexual dimorphism
Abdurakhmanov (1962) reports on two populations form Azerbaijan
where he found head length, predorsal distance, snout length and lower
jaw length to be greater in males and postorbital length greater in
females for both populations, while body depth, dorsal and anal fin
heights, and pectoral and pelvic fin lengths are greater in males and
eye diameter, pelvic-anal fin distance, head depth and interorbital
width are greater in females for one population.
Colour
A specimen from the Anzali Mordab had a dark brown-grey back and
top of the head with some round black spots, silvery-yellowish sides
with 3-4 longitudinal rows of small red spots with whitish halos, a
large black spot on the preoperculum and several smaller spots on the
operculum. The belly and lower head surface were white with minute
dark melanophores. The dorsal fin was a pale grey with 3-4 horizontal
rows of black spots and 1-2 series of 4-8 ellipsoid red spots
vertically. The adipose fin was overall yellowish with some grey
pigment while the upper half of the fin was more orange in colour. The
pectoral, pelvic and anal fins were a pale yellowish or nearly
colourless with grey pigment. The anterior 2-3 rays were coloured
orange. The caudal fin was greyish with the upper and lower marginal
rays dark orange. All fins lacked spots except one red spot observed
on the dorsal fin of a larger fish (19.8 cm total length). Smaller
fish (13.7-16.2 cm fork length) had 12-14 parr marks. The red flank
spots are recognised in the name "kizil ala". Generally in
the sea, this species has numerous, dark, x-shaped spots on silvery
flanks although some individuals have almost none. The fish caught by
Holmes (1845) mentioned below had a dirty olive-green back, dark brown
and red spots on the flanks, a roseate tint to the flanks, and a
golden belly. The migratory form was dark blue on the back, silvery on
the flanks and belly, and had dark spots on the flanks.
Prosek (2003) illustrates in colour a trout from the Tigris River in Turkey,
from the Caspian Sea basin in Turkey and Armenia, and from the Liqvan Chay.
The Liqvan Chay population has 54-400 red to orange spots along its
flank (compared to only 30-50 generally in European brown trout)
giving it a ruby-red sheen (Anonymous, 1977). Only one Liqvan Chay
fish had less than 100 red spots based on 13 fish examined by Saadati
(1977) compared to a range of 27-134 for 13 S. t. caspius from
the Shah Neshin River near Ardabil, where only 2 fish had more than
100 spots. The spotting pattern consists of profuse black and red
spots and is distinct from all other Salmo trutta which have
fewer and larger spots (Saadati, 1977). Colour photographs, courtesy
of Asghar Abdoli of the Agricultural and Natural Resources University,
Gorgan, of 3 fish from the Liqvan Chay dated 4 October 1994 with a
total length of 27.0 cm showed two fish with about 87 red spots while
the other had about 200 (accurate counts not possible because of body
curvature and silvery reflections). There was considerable variation
in spot size among the three fish, the one with most spots having
generally smaller spots which give the sheen referred to above, while
the other two fish have more discrete and larger spots. It is unknown
whether the Liqvan Chay population has been contaminated with other
stocks of Salmo trutta.
Size
The sea-run Caspian salmon attains a larger size than freshwater
populations. Attains 51 kg and 1.24 m but most seen in Iran were 10-15 kg (Walczak,
1972). Length reaches 118 cm and weight 21 kg in Iranian samples but
such large fish are rare in Iran (Farid Pak, 1968b). Most Iranian
catches are 55-105 cm and 1.8-12.7 kg (Farid-Pak, no date). Holmes
(1845) reported one fish caught at the mouth of the "Mazzur"
River weighing 16 lbs (7.3 kg) and measuring 38.5 inches total length
(0.94 m). Nümann (1969) reports fish almost 1 m long in the Karaj
Reservoir in 1967. A fish 78 cm long and weighing 8 kg was worthy of
note in 1996 (Anonymous, 1996c).
Distribution
The trout is found throughout Europe, in North Africa and east to
the Aral Sea basin. It is also recorded from the upper Euphrates basin (Berg, 1949).
The Caspian salmon is found in the Caspian Sea and enters Iranian
rivers to spawn as well as being resident in Gilan, Mazandaran and Golestan
provinces (Sheil, 1856; Nedoshivin and Il'in, 1929; Kozhin, 1957; Nümann, 1966;
R. J. Behnke files; Armantrout, 1980; Annual Report, 1994-1995, Iranian
Fisheries Research and Training Organization, Tehran, p. 28, 1996; Abbasi et al.,
1999; Abdoli, 2000). Formerly known from the
Anzali Mordab and its tributaries (Holčík and Oláh, 1992).
Reported prolifically from the Seh Hazar, Chalus and Babul
rivers (Fortescue, 1920). Found in the Safid River, Kargan River near Hashtpar,
Chalus and Babol rivers. Rare in the Aras (Berg, 1948-1949). Abundant
in the upper reaches of the Gorgan (G. S. Karelin cited in Berg
(1948-1949) although Karelin only visited the lower Gorgan himself).
Reported as S. t. caspius from the Sardab and Tonekabon rivers,
Gorgan Bay, the southeast Caspian Sea, southwest Caspian Sea and
south-central Caspian Sea and as S. t. fario from the Tajan,
Babol, Haraz, Sardab, Tonekabon, Pol-e Rud, and Safid rivers (Kiabi et al., 1999).
Jolodar and Abdoli (2004) give its distribution in the Caspian basin as in
upstream waters from the Aras to the Tajan, absent in the Atrak and Gorgan
rivers.
Also found in the Jajrud (Ouseley, 1819-1823), in the Karaj River (Fortescue,
1924; Derzhavin, 1929b; Berg, 1949), and from the vicinity of Damavand (? Damavand
River) (Fraser, 1825), and numerous other localities in the Namak Lake basin
(see Armantrout (1980) for localities from the 1970s and Abdoli (2000) for more
recent general distributions). However Nümann
(1969) seems to indicate that fish in the Karaj River were stocked
about 100 years previously from Caspian Sea rivers. Reports from the
Zagros Mountains in Iran are uncertain and those from mountains near
Kerman even more so! (Walczak, 1972). These last two records have not
been confirmed by specimens and with introduction of exotic material
may now be impossible to verify. Fraser (1834) reports that "Trouts
are found in several of the streams of Azerbijan and Kurdistan".
It may be worth noting that Heckel (1843b:995) reports that the
collector Theodor Kotschy "did not find trout....in the mountains
of Kurdistan. Since we know our collector's diligence, we doubt that
trout occurs there" but in (1846-1849a:254) Heckel states
"we must add one trout (Salmo), which tastes excellently
according to the report presented by our traveller; that trout occurs
relatively frequently in the mountains of Kurdistan, but has not been
seen by us". This is merely confusing: did Kotschy later find
trout or change his account, or did Heckel recall Kotschy's accounts incorrectly?
Brown trout were artificially planted in Gahar Lake of the upper
Dez River of the Tigris River basin where viable populations
existed in the 1970s in both the upper and lower lake, and more recently (B. Sandford, in
litt., 1979; R. Mehrani, pers. comm., 2000). European brown trout
were planted in the Caspian Sea and Namak Lake
basin and established south of Dorud in the Zagros, and in the Zayandeh
River dam but their origin is unknown (Coad and Abdoli, 1993). Trout were also
introduced to the Karun River basin and the Zayandeh River Dam (Y. Keivany, in litt., 1992).
Trout are also recorded from the the Lake Orumiyeh basin in the upper Talkheh,
Zarreineh and Tatavi rivers (Abdoli, 2000) but whether these are introduced is
not certain. The Liqvan Chai in the Lake Orumiyeh basin contains a distinctive
trout and Liqvan Chay trout were stocked in the Ab-e Bazuft of the upper Karun
River (Tigris River) basin in the autumn of 1975 but this
failed (B. Sandford, in litt., 1979; Prosek, 2003).
Zoogeography
The origin of Iranian trout is probably from the north via glacial
lakes during the last or earlier ice ages and via the Volga River
system or, possibly, from the west via the Black and Mediterranean sea
basins (Tortonese, 1954; Nümann, 1969; Kuderskii, 1974; Osinov, 1984;
Farid-Pak, 1991). The initial colonisation of the Caspian Sea by this
trout apparently occurred much earlier than the late glacial period on
electrophoretic evidence (Osinov, 1988). The question of a northern
origin remains open however on present biochemical evidence (Osinov
and Bernatchez, 1996). The division between their Atlantic and
Danubian groupings occurred about 0.5-0.9 million years ago based on
their data, perhaps 0.7-2.0 million years ago when the division of
European and North American groups of salmonids are taken into
account. These authors note that populations within the Caspian Sea
basin have unique gene pools, suggestive of reproductive isolation,
and these fish are not simply the subspecies S. trutta caspius.
Bernatchez (2001) considers all Caspian trout to belong to the Danubian or Ponto-Caspian
lineage, one of five lineages, and that the centre of origin was probably from
drainages associated with the Cauacasus region of the Black Sea. The major
demographic expansion of this lineage probably occurred about 270,000-290,000
years ago. Bernatchez (2001) considers that populations of each sea basin
occupied by the Danubian lineage should be recognised as distinct evolutionary
lineages but he does not give them names.
Trout in the Zagros Mountains may be Salmo trutta macrostigma
(Dumeril, 1858), if this is a valid subspecies, while some authors
consider Zagros trout to be S. t. caspius on zoogeographical
grounds but pure samples of this population have never been examined
systematically (Behnke, 1965). Boulenger (1896) and Berg (1948-1949;
1949) consider trout in the upper Euphrates and in the Namak Lake
basin to be S. t. macrostigma. Namak Lake trout are then
Pliocene relicts of this Mediterranean subspecies from an invasion via
the Persian Gulf region. However, the Namak Lake fishes generally show
evident affinities with the Caspian Sea basin ichthyofauna and the
trout themselves are very similar in appearance.
The Namak Lake basin trout are generally held in Iran to have been
planted by the royal family in the nineteenth century (Saadati, 1977).
The royal family had sporting camps on the Lar River and the
"Varang-e Rud", a tributary of the Karaj River. Saadati
(1977) compares 30 specimens from each of these two localities and
found characters to be similar except for pyloric caeca (45-58, mean
51 in the Karaj sample, 35-46, mean 39 in the Lar sample) and in
scales in lateral series (131-146, mean 138) and 121-134, mean 127
respectively). He concluded that Karaj River fish are native, of
relatively recent origin from the Caspian Sea basin, and only slightly divergent.
Saadati (1977) also reports on a population of trout in the Mordugh
Chai (probably Mordaq Chay) in the Lake Orumiyeh basin. This
population was typical S. t. caspius with only 17-38 red spots
on the flank. It may have been of recent origin via a headwater
transfer as the tributaries to the Caspian Sea basin are found nearby.
A human agency may have been involved, always a complicating factor in
the distribution of fish which are of sporting or commercial interest.
Habitat
Mahi azad live in the Caspian Sea proper and migrate up rivers to
spawn. Moosari (1996) describes migration into the Tonekabon River of
Iran. Young mahi azad stay in rivers for 2 years. There are also
land-locked populations such as that of the Lar River near Damavand
Mountain and this species may also be found in cool to cold lakes.
Areas with clean gravel are required for reproduction. Temperatures
above 15°C cause egg mortality. Adults can survive up to 29°C,
18-24°C is the optimum range and 12.4-17.6°C the preferred range. Atai Mehr
et al. (2006) found juveniles to survive salinities of 0 to 12.5 g/l over
120 hours, indicative of their adaptability to changing environments. The best
weight and water salinity for release of cultured juveniles was 10 g and 8.0-12.5 g/l.
In the sea, they inhabit coastal areas at 40-50 m with distinct
stocks centred on the basins of the major rivers. Migrations occur from Iranian
shores to Dagestan (Caspian Sea Biodiversity Database, www.caspianenvironment.org).
Age and growth
The Liqvan Chay population females only begin to mature in their
third year and only 50% of males are mature in their second year. This
population appears to be in good condition compared to other
populations, e.g. in the Lar River, and these figures probably
represent more natural values. A population estimate was 1246 fish per
km compared to 11,380 per km in part of the Lar River where fish had
concentrated to avoid severe drought. The life span in the Lar is 6
years (Nehring, 1975a).
There are stocks of dwarf males in Caspian rivers which do not
descend to the sea.
Farid Pak (1968b) found the smallest sexually mature fish in the
Caspian Sea was 53 cm long and the largest 105 cm. Most fish in the
commercial catch of the Caspian Sea were 5-9 years old in the 1950s
(Farid-Pak, no date). Caspian Sea fish may mature as early as 1 year for males
under riverine conditions but most fish mature at 3-9 years, depending on the
river (Caspian Sea Biodiversity Database, www.caspianenvironment.org).
Afraei et al. (2000) examined 190 fish from the Tonekabon River and found
age groups 0+ to 4+. Most fish were in the 2+ age group. Maximum size was 175 mm
and 84.5 g. Condition factors were 1.268 for males and 1.257 for females.
See also below under Reproduction.
Nümann (1969) found Alborz trout to reach 26 cm at the end of 3
years, corresponding to the growth rate for central European fish.
Food
Freshwater populations are known to eat mayfly larvae in Iran as
well as other aquatic insects and crustaceans and terrestrial
insects taken at the surface. Larger specimens elsewhere are known to
take fish and crayfish, and more rarely frogs, salamanders and rodents
and this probably occurs in Iran too. Tonekabon River fish (Afraei et al., 2000) fed most
intensively in spring and least intensively in autumn. The main prey was
Simulium, Plecoptera and Ephemeroptera.
In the sea, young feed on amphipods, mysids and shrimps while
adults take common and anchovy kilkas, silversides and shads.
Reproduction
This fish runs up rivers in October-November and March-May in Iran
(Roux, 1961b). Holčík
and Oláh (1992) record migrations into the Anzali Mordab and a run up
the Pasikhan and Siahdarvishan rivers from late September to the end
of December. A second run occurred in April-May but was much smaller.
Holmes (1845) reports "salmon" in rivers of Gilan from June to the end
of October. Bartley and Rana (1998b) report the spawning run on the
Tonekabon River to be from September to November and spawning to be
from November to December. Spawning occurs on riffles of sand and gravel beds. Spawners are 8-12 years old and are mature
at 700 g. About 1500 eggs are produced for each kilogramme of female. The fish
examined from the Tonekabon River (Afraei et al., 2000) had an
absolute fecundity of 168-379 eggs, average 268 eggs.
Maximum egg diameter is 6.1 mm, number of eggs per gram reaches an
average of 14.7 and absolute fertility reaches 13,468 eggs in Iranian
fish which are considerably smaller than Kura River fish in Azerbaijan (Farid Pak, 1968b).
Alborz trout are ripe at 2-3 years while Caspian Sea fish spend 2-3
years in rivers, then 2 years in the sea before re-entering rivers to
spawn at 60-70 cm. Spawning can occur more than once in a life span (Nümann, 1969).
In the Kura River of Azerbaijan there are two races. One enters the
river in October and travels no higher than the middle reaches 600-700
km from the mouth, is sexually mature and does not weigh more than 12
kg, and spawns in the same year. The second begins to enter the Kura
in October but most fish run in November and December, this race spawns in the upper
reaches about one year later (8-11 months) after a long migration of over 1000
km, and attains 51 kg. There are two races also in Iranian rivers (Berg,
1959). The Kura salmon may have up to 45,000 eggs of up to 6.5 mm
diameter. Kura salmon spawn only once between ages 5 and 9 years. Some
Kura salmon become smolts and migrate to sea in the first year of life
but most descend in their second year.
Parasites and predators
Mokhayer (1976b) records the protozoan Trichodina from the
gills of trout (? this species) in the Karaj River, the cestodes Eubothrium
crassum and E. rugosum, the acanthocephalan Corynosoma
caspicum, and the annelid Piscicola geometra.
Jalali et al. (2005) and Malmberg et al. (2007) summarise the occurrence of Gyrodactylus
species in Iran and record G. derjavini from fish in the Sardab-rud.
Sattari et al. (2005) surveyed this species in the
Chesli and Khorma rivers, recording Cystidicoloides ephemeridarum.
Economic importance
In a survey of the Lar River in June, RaLonde and Walczak (1970b)
found 22 fishermen had caught 222 trout with an average length of
19.85 cm, comparable with an earlier survey by Nümann (1964). The
largest fish was 27 cm long. The catch was 2.56 fish per fisherman per
hour, a good rate of success (but see older records below). This rate
and the production of trout in this river was expected to decline
drastically with construction of a dam on the Lar. Sport fishermen
took 50,000 trout from the Lar River in 1967 (Surber, 1969).
Malek-Eizadi (1993) gives a recent account, in Farsi, of the Lar trout
and apparently confirms its decline. Floor (2003) cites older records of fishing
in the Lar River.
Azad mahi were caught in weirs and with long, 3-pronged forks year
round but the principal seasons were spring and autumn (Holmes, 1845).
The catch in the Safid River region was largest from February to
April, with a maximum in the middle of March. In 1912-1913, a total of
1180 fish were caught in the Safid River, Anzali and Astara regions.
Weights reached 10-12 kg, average 7.5 kg (Nedoshivin and Il'in (1929)
cited in Berg (1948-1949)). Fortescue (1920) reported 1500-2500
"salmon" from the Seh Hazar at Shahsevar, averaging 8-10 lbs
(3.63-4.54 kg) each and seldom exceeding 18 lbs (8.17 kg). Nevraev (1929) reports on catches in
various regions of Iran in the early years of the twentieth century.
In the Astara region from 1901-1902 to 1913-1914, the catch ranged in
numbers from 236 to 1563 and in the Safid River region from 1916-1917
to 1917-1918 the range was 185-663 fish. Yearly catches of mahi azad
in the Anzali region alone have reached as high as 3,037 kg in
1939/1940 and as low as 90 kg in 1946/1947 before commercial fishing
was prohibited (Vladykov, 1964; Walczak, 1972). The Food and
Agriculture Organization, Rome reported only 1 tonne of
"salmonoids" caught in Iran for each of the years 1983
to 1985, presumably the Caspian salmon. Occasional catches are taken in
sturgeon nets of fish 1-4 kg in the Anzali region and elsewhere along
the Iranian coast (Holčík and Oláh, 1992). Many fish are taken by poachers in traps and nets
used to block spawning streams. Salehi (2008) notes a decline in catches of this
species from 13 t in 1995 to less than 3 t in 2005 and most of the catch is
based on stocking rather than natural reproduction.
There is a state supported stocking programme but growth rate is slow. High summer temperatures
(28°C) in the Caspian Sea would affect cage culture and survival (Rana and Bartley, 1998a).
Robins et al. (1991) list this species as important to North
Americans. Importance is based on its use in aquaria and aquaculture,
as food, in sport, in textbooks and because it has been widely
introduced outside its natural range. Salmo trutta is reported
to be ichthyootoxic although there are no reports for Iran or for S.
t. caspius (Coad, 1979b; see also under the genus Schizothorax
for symptoms of this egg poisoning).
Conservation
Pietro delle Valle, who travelled in Iran from 1616 for 7 years,
reported trout from rivulets in Ardabil in the Caspian Sea basin (see
Pinkerton, 1758-1826, volume IX:84), a city not now noted for so
salubrious an environment for salmonids.
Ouseley (1819-1823) dined while at Tehran on dried and salted azad
mahi two feet long (0.61 m) from the Caspian Sea for breakfast one day
in November 1811 and on fresh trout (later referred to as
"kizl-áleh") from the Jajrud for dinner.
Vigne (1842) recorded catching six or seven dozen a day in the Lar
River near Tehran, Charles Murray reported in 1858 that the stream
"abounds so much in trout that I frequently kill 50 in an hour
with a fly" (recorded in Wright (1977)), Valentine Baker (cited in Prosek
(2003)) caught 50-60 trout a day up to 4 lb in weight, and Mounsey (1872)
caught 450 fish up to 1.5 lbs (0.68 kg) in 3 days using flies.
Anderson (1880) found that the Lar River "abounded in
trout". They were still numerous there in the 1970s (Nehring,
1975a). However this population was unusual in that growth rates and
population densities fluctuated drastically from year to year,
probably because spawning habitat and nursery areas were the only
adequate features of this river. Features lacking were feeding areas,
stable banks and stream bed, good plant cover along the banks to
supplement productivity, good physical and chemical water quality and
water levels, and presence of predators as controls on excess
reproduction. As a result, recruitment of young-of-the-year was high
and led to interspecific competition, earlier sexual maturity, and
stunting. Overgrazing in the Lar Protected Area (formerly a National
Park) has affected the survival of trout in this region since this
reduces the availability of insect food, and in 2000 this situation
was exacerbated by the prolonged drought (Imamai, 2000).
Numbers of this species have declined drastically as evidenced by
catch records. The catch decreased 100 times since 1959 to the early 1970s and smaller fish taken
in beach seines were used by fishermen to eat as their market value was low.
In the 1970s, the Shahsavar River was assessed as the best in Iran for this
species as the river was in good condition. However, even this river was blocked
in at least two areas for capturing fish and almost all adults were taken for
"culture" by Shilat. A take of 300 fish provide as many eggs as 20
should because of poor treatment (15°C, Saprolegnia infections). The
Anzali Mordab was surveyed half a mile from a guard station and 11 gill nets
were found, all illegal, in a half mile stretch in half an hour (Carl Bond Archives, Oregon State
University, Corvallis).
Attempts to increase natural reproduction by raising
young to a size more likely to survive have been attempted in Iran
(Andersskog, 1970). The "Kelardasht" (or Shaeed Bahonar)
Fish Farm (part of Shilat, the Iranian Fisheries Company) on the
"Sandar" River has a production capacity of 100,000
fingerlings of 15-20 g but this has never been achieved (Woynarovich,
1985; Krasznai, 1987). It takes about 2 years before fingerlings reach
15-20 g and 10-15 cm, large enough to release. Brood stock are
collected from the Tonekabon River during the September to November
spawning migration. Spawners are 8-12 years old and mature at 700 g.
New brood stock are collected each year although stock from previous
years are kept as backup. In 1997, 500 fish were caught in a 3:1 ratio
of males to females. Eggs from two females are mixed with milt from
two males. Egg yield is about 1500 eggs/kg. Growth rate is slow in
this species, compounded by low rearing temperatures of 2-17°C.
Fingerlings take 10 months to reach 10 g (Bartley and Rana, 1998b). In
a study of the Tonekabon River migration pattern, the following
conditions are found to be favourable for release of cultured fish:
release size should be at least 15 g, release point 500-700 m away
from the estuary, release time March and October, and for one-year-old
fish smolt release is favoured over parr as the former would migrate
to the sea (Annual Report, 1994-1995, Iranian Fisheries Research
and Training Organization, Tehran, p. 28, 1996). Fingerling
production by government hatcheries was 0.01 million in 1986, 0.05
million in 1988, 0.10 million in 1989, 0.16 million in 1990, and 0.20
million in 1991 and in 1992 (Emadi, 1993a). Fingerling production in
1995 was 0.8 million and in 1996 was 0.42 million (Bartley and Rana,
1998a; 1998b). In 2002 and 2003, 344,000 and 325,000 fingerlings were released
at a cost of 2125 and 2288 million rials respectively (Salehi, 2008). The "Gharasoo" Research Station in Sari is
using cage culture of this species (Madbaygi, 1993b). Smolts weighing
25 g on average were released into cages and fed on locally prepared
food (Iranian Fisheries Research and Training Organization
Newsletter, 4:5, 1994). Culture of a rapid-growing triploid sea
trout has been studied in Iran (Annual Report, 1994-1995, Iranian
Fisheries Research and Training Organization, Tehran, p. 32, 1996;
Annual Report, 1995-1996, Iranian Fisheries Research and Training
Organization, Tehran, p. 67, 1997).
Sayyad Borani et al. (2006) studied the effects of weight on the
osmoregulatory ability of juveniles in an attempt to determine the ideal weight
for release (see also above under Habitat). Weight classes were 5, 10, 15 and 20 g and the three larger classes
were capable of osmoregulation in Caspian Sea water. Mojazi Amiri et al.
(2005) detailed the histology of the digestive tract from hatching to parr stage
in order to better understand the digestive system capabilities and enhance
rearing. Asaeian et al. (2006) studied brood fish taken from the early
mid and late migrations, finding those from the early period were more suitable
for offspring production, passing through smoltification more rapidly. However,
they noted that fish from all periods should be used to maintain genetic
diversity. Sarvi et al. (2006), Hatef et al. (2007), Niksirat
et al. (2007) and Sarvi Moghanloo et al. (2007), have studied cryopreservation of sperm, sperm and seminal
plasma composition, and in vitro storage of unfertilized ova in Iran as
means to help conserve wild populations.
Salehi (2008) carried out a cost
factor analysis for fingerling production at the Kelardasht Hatchery in Iran and
found labour costs to be 52% and feed 16%. The average cost of production of a
fingerling was U.S.$0.84 (6269-7123 rials), more than that for sturgeon
(1753-2028) and kutum (54-121). Higher costs are probably associated with lack
of broodstock, lower production quantities and the scale of the hatchery. The
rate of return at age 3-4 years was estimated at 0.5% of those released
annually.
RaLonde and Walczak (1970b) and Walczak (1972) lists the following
reasons for decline of this species: lowering of the Caspian Sea level
making spawning migrations difficult, habitat changes including
siltation, pollution, irrigation dams, and unscreened irrigation
intake canals, and poaching. Both adults and freshly released
fingerlings are heavily poached (Petr, 1987). In the Lar and Karaj
rivers about 1960 professional fishermen took trout using nets,
chemicals and explosives until laws regulating seasons and equipment
were passed and game wardens hired to enforce them (Surber, 1969).
Streams running into the Caspian have their lower 1-3 km dried up by
May through irrigation demands and trout are unable to reach the sea.
Stronger enforcement of laws by game guards, education of the public,
particularly local people, habitat protection and improvement, and a
rational exploitation system are required to protect this species.
Firouz (1974; 1976) reported that the sea-run form was a major
commercial species 25 years prior to his account but the deteriorating
environment coupled with dynamiting, netting and trapping severely
reduced populations. This fish is now completely absent from the
Anzali Mordab (Holčík and Oláh, 1992). Waters where populations survived were designated
"Protected Rivers" in an effort to manage this species
effectively. There are special licence requirements, bag limits and
seasons which anglers must observe. A fine of 10,000 rials is imposed
specifically for illegal fishing of this species (Anonymous, 1977-1978).
The Liqvan Chay population has been confined to this single river
by, it is believed, destruction of habitat through agriculture and
domestication of sheep and goats (Anonymous, 1977). De Mecquenem
(1908) said trout were abundant in the upper reaches of rivers in the
Lake Orumiyeh basin. In 1975, 500 specimens of this subspecies were
transplanted into the Ab-e Bazoft near Shiraz in an effort to conserve
it (Anonymous, 1977).
Caspian salmon used to enter the Kura River basin, with 20% running
up the Aras River on the Iranian border. Most spawning beds on the
Aras became inaccessible in the 1950s with the construction of the
Bagramtapinskaya Dam. The Mingechaurskaya Dam on the Kura cut off 80%
of that rivers spawning beds in 1951. The former Soviets built salmon
hatcheries to offset the losses but these proved to have a low
efficiency. The young fish had a high mortality because of release at
unsuitable high temperatures, release in poor feeding areas, and
exposure to water intakes. In addition, the released fish were too
small or too few to undergo significant smoltification and migration
to ensure subsequent reproduction. Under natural conditions only a
small proportion of juveniles undergo smoltification (Bakshtanskii et al., 1973).
Kiabi et al. (1999) consider S. t. caspius to be
critically endangered in the south Caspian Sea basin according to IUCN
criteria. Criteria include sport fishing, few in numbers, habitat
destruction, medium range (25-75% of water bodies), absent in other
water bodies in Iran, and absent outside the Caspian Sea basin. They
also consider S. t. fario to be vulnerable in the south Caspian
Sea basin according to IUCN criteria. Criteria include sport fishing,
medium numbers, habitat destruction, medium range (25-75% of water
bodies), present in other water bodies in Iran, and present outside
the Caspian Sea basin. Coad (2000a), using 18 criteria, found this species
to be one of the top 4 threatened species of freshwater fishes in Iran. Nezami
et al. (2000) consider this species to be endangered because of
overfishing, habitat destruction and spawning ground degradation. Mostafavi
(2007) lists it as vulnerable in the Talar River, Mazandaran.
Critically endangered in Turkey (Fricke et al., 2007).
Osinov and Bernatchez (1996) note that populations within the
Caspian Sea basin have unique gene pools, suggestive of reproductive
isolation, and these fish cannot be managed as a single subspecies, S.
trutta caspius. Re-introductions and artificial maintenance of
native populations could lead to loss of diversity.
Further work
Togan et al. (1995) show that two Turkish populations of
brown trout are genetically distinct, at a level often found between
species. Genetical analysis of suspected surviving pure populations of
Iranian Salmo trutta should be carried out to determine which
stocks should be receive special attention for conservation.
Sources
Iranian material:- CMNFI 1970-0551, 5, 109.9-166.3 mm standard length, Gilan, Ghaleh River near Fowman (37º13'N, 49º19'E);
CMNFI 1979-0086, 2, 76.5-145.5 mm standard length, Mazandaran, Hasanabad River tributary to Chalus River (no other locality data);
CMNFI 1980-0133, 3, 116.8-139.2 mm standard length, Markazi, Karaj fish hatchery (no other locality data);
CMNFI 1980-0158, 1, 93.3 mm standard length, Markazi, Polurd River at Damavand Mountain after Ab-e Ali (35º51'N, 52º04'E);
CMNFI 2007-0125, 3, 91.2-169.3 mm standard length, Markazi, Luniz River in Karaj River basin (no other locality data);
CMNFI 2007-0126, 7, 95.2-158.3 mm standard length, Azarbayjan-e Khavari, Aldarvish River, Sabalan Mountain (no other locality data);
BM(NH) 1877.7.5:1, 7, 168.1-194.7 mm standard length, Tehran (no other locality data);
BM(NH) 1908.8.7:27-28, 2, 129.0-145.7 mm standard length, north slope of Elburz Mountains near Tehran (no other locality data).
Genus Salvelinus
Richardson, 1836
The charr genus comprises many species in Europe, northern Asia and
North America whose systematics have not been fully worked out. FishBase lists
83 nominal species (August 2007). The charrs have numerous small scales 105 or
more in lateral series), teeth on the jaws, palatines and tongue, teeth are
present on the head but not the shaft of the vomer bone in the roof of the
mouth, scales in the lateral line are smaller than surrounding scales and have
little or no overlap with scales before and behind, the body has light pink, red
or cream spots, and the lower fins have snow-white leading edges.
Salvelinus fontinalis
(Mitchill, 1814)
Common names
ماهي آزاد چشمه اي (= mahi azad
cheshmehi or azad mahi cheshmehi, meaning spring free fish, i.e. spring salmon, free
fish being used for salmon and trout species in Farsi), qezel ala-ye juibary (= brook trout).
[brook trout, brook charr, speckled trout].
Systematics
Salmo fontinalis was originally described from the vicinity of New York city.
Key characters
This species is characterised by 109-132 lateral line scales, 8-13
anal fin principal rays, light-coloured spots on the body, teeth on
the head of the vomer bone in the roof of the mouth, pectoral, pelvic
and anal fins with a white leading edge followed by contrasting black,
truncate caudal fin, dorsal and caudal fins have wavy, dark lines and
blotches and the back has dark or light green or cream, worm-track
markings (vermiculations).
Morphology
Dorsal fin principal rays 9-14, pectoral rays 10-15 and pelvic rays
7-10. Scales are minute, horizontal and irregular ovals with a central
focus, few circuli and no radii. The pelvic axillary scale is
well-developed. Gill rakers 13-22, reaching the second adjacent raker
whem appressed. Pyloric caeca 20-55. The gut is s-shaped. The
chromosome number is 2n=84 (Klinkhardt et al., 1995).
Sexual dimorphism
Spawning males develop a hooked lower jaw or kype.
Colour
The back is olive-green to dark brown or blackish fading to a
silvery-white belly. Flanks have a red to yellow tint. Flank spots are
pale but there are also small, red spots with blue halos. The
pectoral, pelvic and anal fins are yellow, orange, or reddish behind
the white and black leading edges. Sea-run fish have a blue-green back
and silvery flanks with a purplish tinge. Spots are obscured except
for the red ones. Brook trout in large lakes are also more silvery
than stream resident fish. The jaw tips and the roof of the mouth are
blackish. Spawning males are much brighter in overall colour and have
an orange-red lower flank and upper belly, bordered below by black on
each side which delimits the white belly. Young have 6-12 brown parr
marks, the widest equal to eye diameter, and small red, yellow or blue
flank spots. The white leading edge to the lower fins is apparent.
Size
Attains a reputed 86.0 cm and 6.6 kg but most are smaller.
Distribution
In North America this species is found from the shores of Hudson
Bay and Labrador south in marine waters to Cape Cod in the east and
Georgia in the Appalachian Mountains, west through all the Maritime
provinces, Québec and Ontario (except the extreme west) to northeast
Manitoba. Widely introduced to western Canadian provinces, the U.S.A.,
South America, Europe, Asia and Australasia.
A private hatchery on the Jajrud imported over 1 million brook
trout eggs which were raised to fingerling size only for most to be
lost in a flood in 1968. Some were planted in the Jajrud and in the
Latian Reservoir in the Namak Lake basin. Survival remains unknown. Also
recorded from the Sardab and Chalus rivers of the Caspian Sea basin (Annual Report, 1994-1995, Iranian Fisheries
Research and Training Organization, Tehran, p. 26, 1996) but this
is possibly a misidentification for Oncorhynchus mykiss.
Zoogeography
An exotic species from North America, not closely related to native Iranian salmonids.
Habitat
Brook trout are found in cool waters of streams and lakes, usually less than 20°C,
adults preferring 14-16°C. Spawning requires temperatures below 15°C, and below 9°C
for optimal hatching. The upper lethal limit is 25°C for adults and 20°C
for newly hatched fish. pH range is 4.1-9.5. Pools, underneath banks,
under overhanging bushes or behind rocks are favoured spots. During
summer months they retreat to deeper water, to about 8 m, in lakes.
Some populations run to sea in Hudson Bay and Atlantic Canada. They
stay in coastal waters, not moving more than a few kilometres from
their natal stream. Populations in the North American Great Lakes live
and feed mostly in the lake and run up natal streams to spawn.
Age and growth
Maximum life span is over 20 years but most reach only 5 years in
North America. Maturity is attained at 2-3 years, some males at 1
year. Stunting is common in small streams while sea run fish grow
faster than freshwater ones. Optimum growth temperatures are 10-19°C.
Food
Food in North America includes aquatic and terrestrial insects,
molluscs, various fishes, frogs, and even snakes, mice, voles and
shrews. Stream-dwelling fish feed heavily on drifting aquatic
organisms during spring run-off but in summer as drift decreases
surface insects become important. Most feeding occurs in the early
morning and late evening although some food is taken throughout the
day. Diet shifts in response to competition with other species. Sea
run fish take various marine invertebrates and fishes. Sea run adults
in spring and summer eat crustaceans and fish in lower estuarine areas
while young are in the upper estuary eating crustaceans and insects.
During the fall in the river adults eat little and during winter back
in the estuary consumed mostly crustaceans. There is thus a division
of food resources between young and adults.
Reproduction
Spawning in North America takes place from August to December,
earlier in the north and later in the south. Sea-run charr enter their
natal stream in spring and summer even though spawning occurs in fall.
Each year they spend 1.5-3 months feeding in the sea. The spawning
ground is usually gravelly streams but may be lake shoals if there is
some current or spring outflow to keep eggs oxygenated. Spring flows
are preferred even in streams. Males arrive on the spawning ground
first and defend a territory. Both sexes will rush at other fish
entering the redd area. The female cleans a redd of debris by turning
on her side and lashing her tail. Redd depth between stones is tested
by inserting the anal fin. Redd construction may take up to 2 days
with work being carried out both by day and night. Courtship involves
gentle pushes, touches and strokes of the female by the male. The
female is ready to spawn when she crouches in the redd with her
genital area between the stones. The male arches his body and may
press the female against the redd bottom, both fish vibrate and eggs
and sperm are shed. Accessory or sneaky males may rush in to shed
sperm. The female lashes her tail to push eggs into the gravel and
then dislodges gravel with her anal fin to cover the eggs to depths as
great as 20 cm. Yellow-orange eggs are up to 5.0 mm in diameter and
number up to perhaps 17,000 per female although averages range from
the low hundreds to a few thousand. Both sexes may spawn again with
other fish. The eggs develop over winter, taking 165 days at 2.8°C
but only 47 days at 10°C. Temperatures above 11°C will kill the eggs.
Parasites and predators
Brook trout are cannibals on their eggs and young and are eaten
themselves by other fishes, water snakes, turtles, various birds and otters.
Economic importance
Brook trout are very popular sport fish in North America caught on
lures, live baits and flies. These trout are easier to catch than Salmo
trutta and take a wider range of lures. They fight well but are
often quite small and do not leap spectacularly like some other
members of the salmon family.
The ready availability of this salmonid has made it a useful
experimental fish for various physiological, biochemical,
toxicological and other studies. Some reared stocks however show
deformed or lost fins and distorted mouths.
Conservation
This introduced species is not in need of conservation but in fresh
water their preference for cool and clear water makes them susceptible
to loss if waters are dammed, channelised and polluted or if banks are
eroded deforested and overgrazed, conditions not uncommon in Iran.
Further work
The survival of stocks of this species in Iran should be verified
and the effects of this exotic on native species researched.
Sources
Based on general summaries on North American populations such as
those in Scott and Crossman (1973) and Becker (1983) as no Iranian material to
hand. Iranian populations have not been studied.
Genus Stenodus
Richardson, 1836
The inconnu genus contains a single species found in waters
draining to the Arctic Ocean in Eurasia and North America and in the Caspian Sea.
Its characters are essentially those in the species description; a
small bone lacking a head canal on the outer side of the lower jaw at
the joint of the articular and dentary is distinctive. Branchiostegals number 8-11.
Stenodus leucichthys
(Güldenstaedt, 1772)
Common names
safid mahi (= white fish), آزاد ماهي (azad mahi or free fish), azad
mahi Volga (= Volga free fish, or
Volga salmon, free fish being used in Farsi for salmon), زيبا (= ziba), mahi-ye ziba or
ziba mahi (= beautiful fish, in northwest Gilan, e.g. at Astara),
mahi-e-azad-e-ziba, inkonu.
[belorybitsa in Russian; nelma or azatmahy in Turkmenian; inconnu, conny, white salmon, Caspian inconnu].
Systematics
Salmo leucichthys was originally described from the Volga
and Ural rivers, Caspian Sea and Kamchatcka, Russia.
The type subspecies in the Caspian Sea basin is the one found in
Iran. The subspecies Stenodus leucichthys nelma (Pallas, 1773)
of White Sea, Siberian and northwestern North American drainages is more common.
Key characters
The characters of the species are those of the genus.
Morphology
Dorsal fin branched rays 8-13 after 2-6 unbranched rays and anal
fin branched rays 9-16 after 2-5 unbranched rays. Lateral line scales
88-121, scales above the lateral line 8-13, and scales below the
lateral line 10-12. There is a pelvic axillary scale. Scales bear
numerous fine circuli, the focus is slightly subcentral posterior, the
anterior scale margin is wavy but irregular in outline and the scale
is generally rounded. There are no radii. There is a single flap between the
nostrils.Gill rakers number 17-27 and
reach the fourth adjacent raker when appressed. Pyloric caeca number
191-193 and the gut is s-shaped. Vertebrae number 64-70.
Sexual dimorphism
Males develop tubercles on the head and sides of the abdomen during spawning.
Colour
Overall colour is silvery without spots.
Size
Reaches 1.5 m and 28 kg, rarely 40 kg. On the coast of Dagestan the
average size was 7.6-10.8 kg in the 1920s (Berg, 1948-1949).
Distribution
The subspecies is restricted to the Caspian Sea and its drainage.
Rare in Iranian waters with 5 specimens caught and preserved from 5-7
km east of Bandar-e Anzali in the Caspian Sea from 1984-1990. Several
dozen fish have been caught each year in Iran, starting in the late
1960s, all from between the mouths of the Safid and Astara rivers (Holčík
and Razavi, 1992). Reported from the southeast Caspian Sea, southwest
Caspian Sea and south-central Caspian Sea (Kiabi et al., 1999).
Zoogeography
This species is found naturally in the Caspian Sea but was
generally believed to inhabit only the northern, and rarely the
western, parts to the north of 40°N.
Rare specimens were reported by Kazancheev (1981) from the coasts of
Dagestan and Azerbaijan in early summer. It probably penetrated into
the Caspian Sea from the Arctic Ocean basin during the last glacial
period via ponded lakes.
Habitat
Inconnu live in the Caspian Sea proper at depths less than 60-65 m (optimally
25-45 m) and migrate up rivers to
spawn, in the Volga for 3000 km. Fat content of fish at Astrakhan at
the Volga mouth was 26% of total weight but by the time fish reached
the spawning grounds in the Ufa River this had fallen to 14%, and
after spawning to 1.5% for females and 1.6% for males. Off Iran they
are caught mostly above depths of 25 m from October until the end of
December. Some are caught in beach seines in shallow water (Holčík
and Razavi, 1992) but elsewhere are known from depths down to 46 m. It
is said to move into the central and southern Caspian in summer and
returns north when water temperatures fall below 8-10°C
in the first half of September (Berg, 1948-1949). This contrasts with
the catch records for Iran. Fingerlings tolerate temperatures up to 25ºC
in culture ponds but in the sea it is found at temperatures below 20ºC
(Caspian Sea Biodiversity Database, www.caspianenvironment.org).
Age and growth
Life span is at least 12 years in the Volga population for females
and 8 years for males. Iranian fish were up to 6 years old (Holčík
and Razavi, 1992). Spawning females are predominately 6-8 years and
males 5-6 years old (Letichevskiy, 1981). Females on the Volga
spawning grounds are 85-105 cm, 5.5-9.5 kg while males are 75-100 cm, 3.5-7.5 kg.
Food
There is no feeding on the spawning migration, the fish relying
solely on their stored reserves of fat. Fat declined in one study from
21% before, to 2% after, spawning. In the Caspian Sea it feeds on
fishes such as gobies (Gobiidae), Rutilus rutilus, Atherina
boyeri, young Sander, common and anchovy kilkas, and shads. In
the sea, adults feed on kilka and silversides (97-99%)(Caspian
Sea Biodiversity Database, www.caspianenvironment.org).
Young feed on zooplankton 7-10 days after hatching but are predatory
in their second month. Fry descend to the Caspian Sea to feed until
they are sexually mature.
Reproduction
Spawning takes place in October and November at 0.2-6.0°C
after an ascent up north Caspian rivers. The Volga River run peaks in
December and March. Fecundity reaches 390,000 eggs of up to 2.4 mm
diameter. Eggs average 26% of the female's weight. The eggs are
slightly adhesive and shed on the river bottom. Spawning occurs only
once or twice in the life cycle of most fish although exceptional
females may spawn 3 times. Spawning occurs at intervals of 2-3 years.
Incubation takes 180-200 days and hatching takes place in spring. The
young immediately descend to the sea.
Parasites and predators
Eggs are eaten by Gobio species and by Lota lota.
Economic importance
This species has no economic importance in Iran but was a
significant member of former Soviet fisheries, taken both in the sea and on
its spawning migration. Up to 110,000 fish were taken annually in the
Volga-Caspian region. It has a rich, delicate flesh with a fat content of 18-26% and is a favoured
smoked product (Caspian Sea Biodiversity Database, www.caspianenvironment.org).
Conservation
This species was listed as threatened in Southwest Asia by Holloway
(1976) and endangered in the Caspian Sea by Fricke et al. (2007).
Kottelat and Freyhof (2007) state that it is maintained only by stocking and is
on the brink of extinction. The population of this species, spawning principally in the
Volga, declined drastically after regulation of this river. In the
1960s, the population was estimated to be only 2000 fish but it has
recovered to 17,000 fish through artificial rearing (Mina, 1992). In
the two decades 1961-1980, fish hatcheries in the Volga Delta raised
72.4 million inconnu. Gravel spawning grounds were also constructed
(Letichevskiy, 1981). It has been proposed for inclusion in the
"Red Book of the U.S.S.R." which forms the basis for
measures to protect species (Pavlov et al., 1985). Lelek (1987)
classified it as endangered. Kiabi et al. (1999) consider this
species to be data deficient in the south Caspian Sea basin according
to IUCN criteria. Criteria include commercial fishing, sport fishing,
few in numbers, bodies), limited range (less than 25% of water
bodies), absent in other water bodies in Iran, and present outside the
Caspian Sea basin.
Further work
Further records of this species should be recorded to document the presence
and spread of this fish in Iranian waters.
Sources
Morphology based on Holčík and Razavi (1992) for Iranian specimens.
Iranian material: None.
Comparative material: BM(NH) 1878.12.26:23, 1, 199.5 mm standard length, Bremen (no other locality data);
BM(NH) 1899.7.25:22, 1, 215.5 mm standard length, Russia, River Obi (no other locality data).
Mugilidae
The mullets or grey mullets are found world-wide in temperate to
tropical coastal waters readily entering estuaries and even resident
in freshwaters. There are about 17 genera and 72 species but only 3 species are
native to Iran in fresh and brackish waters and a further 2 species
have been successfully introduced (the latter not mapped in Berra
(2001) because they are exotics). Other species are recorded as
entering the rivers of southern Iran from the Persian Gulf and Sea of Oman although identification is not
always certain (see Marine List). Maximum size is about 0.9 m.
This family is characterised by a compressed to subcylindrical body
with a somewhat flattened head; moderate sized scales which may be
cycloid but are ctenoid in most adults and extend onto the top and
sides of the head; faint or no lateral line along the flank but pits
or grooves on scales contain the sense organs; the eye may have an
adipose or fatty eyelid forming a vertical, slit-like opening;
vertebrae usually 24, rarely as high as 26; wide gill openings; gill rakers long and slender and increasing in number with growth; upper elements of
the gill arch are specialised as a pharyngobranchial organ,;5-6 branchiostegal rays; a spiny and short first dorsal fin (4 spines),
the second dorsal with 1 unbranched ray or spine and 6-10, usually 8,
branched rays; anal fin with 2-3 spines and 8-12 branched rays; an
abdominal pelvic fin with 1 spine and 5 soft rays; pelvic bones
connected to the postcleithrum by a ligament; mouth transverse
and small; teeth on jaws short, weak and flexible, and the lower jaw may
be toothless; the stomach wall is strongly muscled (gizzard-like); and
the gut is very long and coiled.
Mullets are schooling fish which feed on microscopic algae and the
minute animals associated with the algae. They grub, gulp or suck
(hence "mugil") bottom deposits, spitting out some of the
debris and extracting nutrient from the remainder. The long gill
rakers filter the food, the strong gizzard-like stomach crushes it and
the long intestine (about 7 times body length) aids in digestion.
Their bottom feeding leaves long patches of disturbed sediment readily
visible from a distance. Eggs, larvae and young mullet are pelagic.
Adults are found in large schools in coastal waters or on tidal flats.
These fishes are very important economically as food eaten fresh,
smoked or canned, as bait, and as cultured fish in ponds. The flesh is
oily and rich but has few bones. Mugilid species in Khuzestan are thought
to be the intermediate hosts of Heterophyidae flukes found in humans and
carnivores (Massoud et al., 1981).
Recent studies have been carried out on culturing Mugil cephalus and Liza aurata in brackish
water, in inland pools and salt and freshwater culture ponds in the
northern and central parts of Iran (Emadi, 1993a; Iranian Fisheries
Research and Training Organization Newsletter, 11:6, 1996; Azari Takami et
al., 1997). In April 1994, 20,000 Mugil cephalus fry weighing 0.5 g were
imported from Hong Kong as part of this programme (Iranian
Fisheries Research and Training Organization Newsletter, 4:8,
1994). Azari Takami et al. (1997) successfully raised fry of Liza
aurata and L. saliens at Bafgh-Yazd in central Iran in earthen ponds
supplied with brackish well water. Fry in the 3-10 g range were cultivated for
100 days at 2200 fry/ha with pond fertilisation and with fertilisation and
complementary feeding, giving 100 g and 120 g fish respectively. Experiments
with different stocking densities and mixes of the two species were also carried
out. Second year L. saliens reached 165 g and third year L. aurata
reached 630 g and sexual maturity.
Experiments have been carried out on fishing methods for these
fishes in Iran, comparing encircling gill nets with fixed gill nets
and with purse seines (Annual Report 1992-93, Iranian Fisheries
Research and Training Organization, Tehran; Annual Report
1993-94, Iranian Fisheries Research and Training Organization, Tehran).
In 1994-1995, the total mullet catch was 4145 t, 85% of which was L.
aurata. Catch per unit effort decreased by 50% over the preceding
three years (Annual Report, 1994-1995, Iranian Fisheries Research
and Training Organization, Tehran, p. 37, 1996).
The general name for mullets in Farsi is kefal or kafal.
Pillay (1972) gave a bibliography on mullets and Thomson (1997)
reviewed the family, giving further details of anatomy than summarised here.
Genus Liza
Jordan and Swain, 1884
This genus is characterised by thin to moderately thick, terminal
upper lip without papillae, the lower lip is directed forwards and is
thin-edged, teeth are setiform, ciliiform or absent in the upper lip,
ciliiform or absent in the lower lip, there is a symphysial knob to
the lower jaw and the lower jaws meet at a 90º
angle or more, the maxilla is bent down over the premaxilla and is
either uniformly curved or is s-shaped, the maxilla end is visible
when the mouth is closed, the anteroventral edge of the preorbital bone is
serrate, weakly concave or kinked and ventrally it is broad and squarish, an adipose eyelid is present sometimes but
is not well-developed being a narrow rim around the eye at all ages,
the pharyngobranchial organ has two valves, pyloric caeca number 2-14, predorsal scales are unicaniculate, and the
pectoral axillary scale is weak or absent. Thomson (1997) lists
further characters but the genus is distinguished easily from Mugil
(q.v.), the only other genus from Iran.
Liza abu
(Heckel, 1843)
Further illustrations
Liza abu, lateral view of head of above; Liza abu, dorsal view of head of above; both after Berg (1949)
Common names
بياح (biah), biah zury, zuri, kafal, shochy, do'kelki in Khuzestan (= with two
sails, presumably referring to the two dorsal fins), ? derbak.
[maid, khishni, hishni, abu-khraiza, hosoon, hashsoun, abu-khraiza, or abu sukkanejn (=
father of two anchors in allusion to the toothed suborbital bone
according to Heckel (1843b)), all in Arabic; minghaj in Pakistan; abu mullet, freshwater mullet].
Systematics
Mugil pseudotelestes Pietschmann, 1912, described from the
"Schatt el Arab bei Basra (Aschar)" (Ashar is at 30°31'N, 47°50'E),
is probably a synonym (Coad, 1991b) based on the original description.
Mugil hishni Misra in Hora and Misra, 1943 described from
"Rivers and Hors, Iraq" (hors or hawrs are marshes) is also
a synonym based on the description, an opinion concurred in with
Ingham (no date) and Özdilek (2003). Thomson (1997) considers hishni to be a
synonym and possibly pseudotelestes although he considers the
description of this species insufficiently detailed. Mugil abu
zarudnyi Berg, 1949 was described from "Ser-i-pul, 30 km from
Malamir, between Deh-i-dez and Malamir, region of the Bakhtiars and
Lurs, upper course of the Karun R., south-western Ian, 17 III 1904, N.
Zarudnyi". Thomson (1997) considers this subspecies to be of
doubtful validity given the variability of this species. Different stocks exist
in the Tigris, Euphrates and Orontes rivers as evidenced by morphology (Turan et al., 2004).
Randall (1995b) places this species in the genus Chelon
Rose, 1793; Thomson (1997) does not.
Material of Mugil abu, housed in the Naturhistorisches
Museum Wien, is under NMW 9224-9230 (7 fish) and 67868 (2) and are syntypes. The type
locality is the "Tigris bei Mossul" according to Heckel
(1843b) and the catalogue lists 4 specimens.
Mugil (Liza) abu zarudnyi Berg, 1949 was described from
Iranian tributaries of the Tigris River basin. The 5 syntypes of zarudnyi
are in the Zoological Institute, St. Petersburg (ZISP 24336), measure
69.1-80.7 mm standard length. The date in the catalogue is 4.II.1904 (old style).
The holotype of Mugil hishni is in the Zoological Survey of
India, Calcutta under ZSI F13626/1 with 1 paratype under ZSI F13627/1
(Menon and Yazdani, 1963; Eschmeyer et al., 1996).
Key characters
The high lateral scale count, long pectoral fins reaching almost
level with the first dorsal fin origin when folded back (note fin tips
often frayed, especially in preserved material, so not as apparent),
short pectoral axillary scale, thin lips, 3 anal fin spines and 8
branched rays, relatively strong spines in the first dorsal and anal
fins, and peg-like or setiform teeth (not tricuspid) in the upper jaw
only, distinguish this species from other species in the genus Liza
and from other mullets.
Morphology
The eye has fatty tissue covering as far as part of the iris. Lips
are thin and the lower lip has a pronounced knob. Peg-like teeth are
obviously present only on the upper lip, the lower lip having
scattered ciliate teeth. The end of the maxilla has an s-shaped bend
and its tip is exposed. The anterior edge of the denticulate
preorbital is angular, bending down at the corner of the mouth. The
pectoral axillary scale is weakly developed. Occasional antero-dorsal
scales have double canals. Pectoral fin length is 75-78% of head
length and this fin extends back to a level almost at the first dorsal
fin origin. First dorsal fin spines 3-4, usually 4, second dorsal fin
soft rays 5-10, usually 8 after 1-2 spines, anal fin spines 3 followed
by 5-10, usually 8 soft rays, pectoral fin branched rays 13-17 and
pelvic fin branched rays 5-6, usually 5. Vertebrae 21-25. Fusions and minor
vertebral anomalies were described by Al-Hassan (1987)
and Al-Hassan and Naama (1986b) from Iraqi fish. Lateral
scales 39-53, usually 44-50. Scales are strongly ctenoid on the
exposed part and the fish feels rough to touch when rubbed from tail
to head. The embedded part of the scale has fine circuli. The focus is
very posterior. Scale shape is rectangular with the anterior margin
vertical or somewhat wavy. The anterior upper and lower corners are
square or even pointed. The dorsal and ventral scale margins are
straight and the posterior margin is rounded. There are a few radii
(as few as 4) from the focus to the anterior margin and, where these
intersect the margin, it may be slightly indented to form a wavy edge.
There are 4 pyloric caeca and the gut is elongate and coiled. Gill
rakers are short than the gill filaments and number 44-55. They bear
teeth on the internal edge. Islam and Al-Nasiri (1978) give
morphometric characters. Hoda (1978) describes the larva (as Mugil hishni)
in Iraq. 2n = 50 (Balasem et al. (2000). Thomson (1997) notes that this is the most
variable species in the family.
Al-Hassan (1984b) showed differences in counts of vertebrae and dorsal fin
rays between fish from Basrah and the Karkheh River in Iran. Turan et al.
(2004) also noted differences in morphometric data for stocks from the Orontes
(= Asi), Tigris and Euphrates rivers of Turkey, attributing this to phenotypic adaptation
as the stocks were genetically homogenous. Thomson (1997) notes that this is the
most variable species in the family. Jawad (2004b) studied asymmetry in this
species from the Shatt al Arab at Basrah and suggested pollution could be a cause.
Jawad and Öktener (2007) record lordosis (axial spinal curvature) in this
species in the Atatürk Dam Lake, Turkey.
The nominal subspecies zarudnyi has 3-4 first dorsal fin
spines, 1-2 spines and 5-7 soft rays in the second dorsal fin, the
anal fin has 3 spines and 5-9 soft rays, usually 9, and scales in
lateral series 41-46. The larger scales distinguish it from the
typical form at Mosul in Iraq (Berg, 1949). My observations on the
types show 4(4) first dorsal fin spines, 1(2) or 2(2) second dorsal
fin spines and 7(3) or 8(1) soft rays, 7(1), 8(1) or 9(2) anal fin
soft rays, 5(4) pelvic fin rays, 13(1) or 14(3) branched pectoral fin
rays, and 39(1), 43(1), 44(1) or 45(1) scales in lateral series. One
specimen is unusual in having a mix of abnormally low counts and
normal counts: 3 first dorsal fin spines, 5 second dorsal fin soft
rays, 5 anal fin soft rays, 5 pelvic fin rays, 15 pectoral fin rays,
and 43 lateral series scales.
Meristic values for Iranian specimens, excluding the above: first dorsal
fin spines 4(36); second dorsal fin soft rays 7(4), 8(31) or 9(1);
anal fin soft rays 8(28) or 9(8); pectoral fin branched rays 13(1),
14(17), 15(13) or 16(4); pelvic fin branched rays 5(35) or 6(1); lateral series
scales 44(5), 45(5), 46(5), 47(8), 48(2), 49(4), 50(1) or 51(1);
and total vertebrae ?.
Sexual dimorphism
Unknown.
Colour
The back is a light brown or greyish or olive-green with the flanks
and belly silvery or yellowish-silver. There may be an indistinct
silvery stripe or 2 grey stripes along the flank. Generally the upper
flank is dark, the lower flank pale, and the two clearly demarcated.
The upper part of the lower flank may bear alternating light and dark
stripes but these are sometimes poorly expressed. The second dorsal
and caudal fins are dusky to brownish and lower fins are
yellowish-white to hyaline. Scale margins are covered in small black
spots. The top of the eye is lime-green and reddish-brown just below
but still silvery around the pupil generally. Young fish have a
reddish colour at the base of the pelvic, anal and caudal fins and
have an evident mid-lateral stripe against a pale body.
Size
Attains 26 cm total length and 0.15 kg.
Distribution
Found in the Tigris-Euphrates and Orontes (= Asi) (Özdilek, 2003) river basins including the Tigris River basin in Iran
in rivers and marshes, in lower reaches of rivers draining to the Persian Gulf, and in Pakistan.
In Iran it is also recorded from Parishan (= Famur) Lake but it was not captured in a 1995 survey.
A record from the Barm-e Shur near Shiraz is probably an introduction as this
species was not caught there in the 1970s by me (Gh. Izadi, pers. comm.,
2001).
Abdoli (2000) maps this species in the lower Hasan Langi, Kul, Gowdar and Mehran
rivers at the Straits of Hormuz in the Hormozgan basin;
the lower Mand River and the lower Zohreh (= Hendijan) rivers in the Gulf basin,
the Arvand, lower Karun, lower Karkeheh and the Simarreh rivers in the Tigris River basin..
Zoogeography
As a freshwater member of a genus with many species in the sea, its origins
lie with these marine relatives.
Habitat
This mullet is a freshwater species found in rivers, streams, channels,
canals and drains, lakes, reservoirs and ponds, on fish farms of Iraq and neighbouring countries, occasionally entering estuaries.
It usually occurs in schools. Epler et al.
(2001) found it to be the dominant species of fish in lakes Habbaniyah, Tharthar
and Razzazah, Iraq, comprising 72% of all fish collected. This was one of the most
abundant species in the recovering marshes of southern Iraq in 2005-2006 (at
almost 36% of 16,199 fishes collected)(Hussain et al., 2006) and in the
marshes in the 1980's (Hussain and Ali, 2006). Nasir and Na'ama (1988) and Hussain and Naama (1989) report it
from the Khawr az Zubayr in a marine environment, probably a consequence of
human-induced environmental changes. It is the most abundant species in autumn
in the Karun River, Iran, comprising 44.2% of the catch (Mokhayer, 1981c).
van den Eelaart (1954) reporting on Iraqi populations found this mullet in
the surface waters and submerged vegetation of lakes and marshes, preferably
where there is a gentle water flow. In December-January it enters rivers and
deeper waters, especially in very cold winters. Ahmad et al. (1983; 1985)
have shown this species can withstand abrupt increases of temperature up to 30°C
and salinity up to 10‰ for 24 hours under experimental conditions.
Mortality in water at 15‰ is low. Salinities up to 30‰ and
temperatures up to 35°C are tolerated, presumably if increases are gradual.
Ahmed et al. (2002) stated that it prefers salinities not exceeding 2‰
(later 5.6‰) but can survive abrupt transfer to 15‰. S. Cowton (pers. comm., 23 August 2005) has observed
schools of this species gaping at the surface in the artificial lake around Al
Faw Palace in Baghdad, presumably in response to high temperatures and low
oxygen. It is often the dominant species left in small pools when marshes dry
up, as in the Shadegan Marshes of Iran observed by B. W. Coad.
Age and growth
Al-Nasiri and Islam (1978) studied the age and growth of this species from
commercial catches in the Shatt al Arab, Iraq. Specimens were aged by examining
the otoliths and three age groups determined with 0+ fish being 8.9-10.9 cm, 1+ fish
being 9.9-14.8 cm and 2+ fish being 13.6-18.2 cm total length. Length-otolith
formulae were given. Al-Yamour et al. (1988) examined a population of
this species in the Al-Daoodi Drain, Baghdad and found an age span up to 7 years
using scales to age fish. Older age groups (5 and 6) grow more slowly than
Diyala River fish, perhaps because of higher salinity in the Drain and the
enriched conditions in the Diyala River due to sewage. The length-weight
relationship was W = 0.034 L2.6, for males W = 0.062 L2.396,and
for females W = 0.031 L2.642. The condition factor was 6.308 for
males and 3.155 for females. Khalaf et al. (1986) studied a population in
the Diyala River, Iraq which was polluted with sewage from the Rustamiyah treatment
plant. Khishni is the second dominant species from December to March after
Chondrostoma regium and in August the dominant species in catches. Fish were
heavier and in better condition in the more polluted areas, but probably not as
good for human consumption! Growth declines after age group 5 with few fish in
age group 6. Length-weight relationships were W = -3.39 L2.64 for
males and W = -2.96 L2.50 for females. Mhaisen and Yousif (1989)
examined a population of khishni in Mehaijeran Creek, a side branch of the Shatt al Arab
south of Basrah, Iraq. Only 3 age groups (0+ to 2+) are reported since the creek water
level is affected by the tide and older fish tend to move into the deeper waters
of the adjacent Shatt al Arab. Growth is faster in the creek than in other Iraqi
locations. The length-weight relationship was log W = 2.794 log TL - 1.64840 for
males and log W = 3.337 log TL - 2.25728 for females. Mhaisen and Al-Jaffery
(1989) report 6 age groups for fish from Babylon Fish Farm west of Hilla, Iraq with a
total length-weight relationship log W = 2.96057 log L - 11.19599 (and for
standard length log W = 2.87574 log SL -10.24769). Fish were in good condition
as they were taking food meant for cultured carp. The relative condition factor
was 0.98-1.04, similar to values obtained by other authors. The von Bertalanffy
growth equation was TLt = 409.6 {1 - exp [-0.06314 (t - 3.13868)]}.
Al-Shamma'a et al. (1995) examined fish from the Tigris River at Al-Za'faraniyah,
Iraq and found log total weight = -2.033 + 3.119 log total length (r= 0.955). Epler
et al. (2001) found the oldest age groups to be 4+ in Iraqi lakes Habbaniyah and
Razzazah and 5+ in Lake Tharthar. The mean condition factor was 0.97, 1.05 and
1.09 in lakes Habbaniyah, Tharthar and Razzazah respectively. Syzpuła et al.
(2001), studying age and growth in the lakes Habbaniyah, Tharthar and Razzazah in
1981 and 1982, found this species grew fastest in Lake Tharthar. A decrease in
length growth was noted in the second year of life and a decrease in body mass
in the last years of life.
The effect of starvation over 35 days on the proximate chemical composition
of this species was studied by Yesser et al. (1999). They found a sharp
decline in lipid content (4.38 to 0.98%), a slight drop in protein and an
increase in both moisture and ash. Both condition factor and viscera somatic
index declined gradually, 1.2 to 0.83 and 10.18 to 3.63% respectively. Body
weight fell by 30.59%. Lipid reserves in muscle were therefore an important form
of energy storage.
Ünlü et al. (2000) report age groups of 1+ to 4+ in the Turkish Tigris
River. Hussain et al. (1987) found condition factor to range from 1.12 to
1.64 for different length groups for Karkheh River fish from Iran near the Iraq
border and Hawr al Hawizah.
Food
Al-Nasiri et al. (1977) studied the feeding ecology of this species in
the Shatt al Arab, Iraq. Aquatic plant parts and phytoplankton are food items
but the vast bulk of material is sand grains and organic detritus, the former
presumably ingested while searching for detrital food. Phytoplankton is made up
of diatoms (50%), green algae (36%) and blue-green algae (14%), with diatoms the
most abundant numerically. Plant parts are fragments of Vallisneria
leaves and rarely leaves and stems of Potamogeton and Polygonum.
Islam et al. (1981) reported on the seasonal patterns of feeding in
Rashdiyah Reservoir, Baghdad. However it should be noted that only 10 fish were
examined for each month. Aquatic plant parts, organic debris and phytoplankton
are dominant foods followed by zooplankton and aquatic insects. The diet is
diverse, 48 species of Chlorophyceae, 60 species of Bacillariophyceae, 9 species
of Myxophyceae and 3 of Euglenophyceae. Heavy feeding occurs in late winter,
spring and fall with peaks in April and November. Empty stomachs are more common
in summer. Islam and Khalaf (1983) studied diel feeding patterns in the same
reservoir and found peaks at 0600 and 2100 hours. Naama and Muhsen (1986)
studied the feeding periodicity of this species in the Hawr al Hammar, Iraq and
found the main food to be algae, mixed with incidental sand grains. There is a
single feeding peak each day at 1730 hours and feeding stops at 0200 hours. This
species is a day feeder. In another study of the recovering Hawr al Hammar, diet
was 76.49% algae and 20.3% diatoms with amounts of crustaceans and plants being less than 10%
each, in the Hawr al Hawizah 74.3% algae and 22.5% diatoms, with amounts of plants
and crustaceans being less than 10% each, and in the Al Kaba'ish (= Chabaish) Marsh 75.8% algae
and 20.0% diatoms with plants and crustaceans at less than 10% each (Hussain et al.,
2006). Ahmed and Hussain (1982) examined the food of young
fish near Basrah, Iraq and found organic detritus to be an important food
followed by phytoplankton. The smallest fish are consuming eggs in large
quantities. Al-Shamma'a and Jasim (1993) studied feeding in the Hawr al Hammar
in Iraq during the flood period and reports small quantities of adult insects,
chironomid larvae, trichopteran larvae, other insect larvae, molluscs and worms,
while copepods, cladocerans, and rotifers are important foods. This variation
from the diet studies reported above may be due to the flood not allowing
diatoms and algae to settle out and become available as food. Typical foods and
gut contents such as organic detritus, algae, diatoms, plant tissues and sand
grains are also present. Sand grains may help in trituration of food and
therefore are not an accidental inclusion. Al-Shamma'a et al. (1995)
examined fish from the Tigris River at Za'faraniyah and found phytoplankton
ranked first in the diet followed by detritus. Debris comprised more than 37% of
stomach contents on the points method. Epler et al. (1996) found detritus
to be the main food in three Iraqi lakes. Epler et al. (2001) found
detritus to be 83.7% of the diet in Lake Tharthar, mineral parts (presumably
sand) 12.7% and plants 3.6%. In Lake Habbaniyah detritus was 73.0%, mineral parts
16.5% and plants 8.4%. In Lake Razzazah detritus was 84.4%, mineral parts 14.7%
and plants 0.9%. Detritus was the principal food year round with no seasonal
variations. Hussain and Ali (2006) examined feeding relationships among fishes
in the Hawr al Hammar and found this species to be a herbivore, 39.6% of the
diet being plants and algae, with 18% detritus.
Hussain et al. (1987) examined the food of khishni in the Karkheh
River, Khuzestan, where it is the dominant species in terms of numbers
caught, by two orders of magnitude. However capture techniques would affect this
assessment. Food was similar to that reported from Iraqi fish. Phytoplankton is
the most important food for fish 3.0-3.9 cm long, followed by organic detritus,
while in larger fish this order is reversed. Silt is an important content of the
gut in all fishes studied. Eighteen species of Bacillariophyceae, 6
Chlorophyceae and 4 Cyanophyceae species were recorded from gut analyses. Abdoli
(2000) reports Daphnia, Hemiptera, Navicula, Nitzschia, Amphora
and Cymbella species for Iranian specimens.
Reproduction
Marammazi (1994) considered it likely that this species spawns
twice each year in the Zohreh River, Iran draining to the northern Persian Gulf.
van den Eelaart (1954) gave the spawning season in Iraq as end of February to
mid-March. In the Al-Daoodi Drain at Baghdad and the Hawr al Hammar of southern
Iraq spawning starts in March and continued through May (Al-Yamour et al.,
1988). Mean number of eggs reaches 59,793, increasing with size and weight. In
the study by Khalaf et al. (1986), all age group 1 fish are mature and
females outnumber males in age groups 2 to 6 although this may be due to
sampling bias. Ünlü et al. (2000) report maturity at age 1 in the Turkish
Tigris River based on gonad development, with no spawning in the period August
to February. Mhaisen and Yousif (1988) examined a population of khishni in
Mehaijeran Creek, a side branch of the Shatt al Arab south of Basrah. Fish are
ripe from January to March and females partly spent in April and spent in May.
The fish spawn once. All males and females were mature at 16 cm in the creek
while females mature at 13 cm in the Hawr al Hammar. Some males matured at 10.5
cm and some females at 10.6 cm in the creek. Naama et al. (1986) studied
reproduction in the Hawr al Hammar and found a prolonged breeding period from
November to April during which two batches of eggs could be shed. Maturity is
attained at the end of the first year of life for both sexes when they are about
10 cm total length, with all males mature at 16 cm and all females at 13 cm. Egg
diameter is up to 0.75 mm. Epler et al. (1996) record a relative
fecundity of 359,873 to 756,118 eggs for fish of age groups 1+ to 3+ from three
lakes in Iraq. Mature eggs were found from January to May in one lake and from
November to March in another, maturity being two months earlier in saltier
water. Daoud et al. (1998) examined reproductive biology in fish from the
Tigris River at Al-Khadhmia north of Baghdad. They found a sex ratio of 1:1.45
(male:female), significantly different from 1:1, a breeding season from December
to March, sexual maturity in all fish longer than 10 cm total length, smallest
mature male 10.4 cm, smallest mature female 10.6 cm, absolute fecundity
12,033-63,836 eggs and relative fecundity 1237 eggs/g. Epler et al.
(2001) studied reproduction in lakes Tharthar and Habbaniyah and found both sexes
to achieve maturity in the first year of life at 14.2 cm. Spawning occurred in
May and fecundity was 652-791 thousand eggs/kg body mass. Eggs are shed on, and
adhere to, vegetation.
Rashid (19940 gives details of the histological changes in the ovaries for
fish from the Qarmat Ali canal, along with several indices. The gonosomatic
index showed no significant change from October to December but increased from
3.03 in December to 9.43 in January and 16.4 in February, decreasing
subsequently suggesting a gradual spawning took place in March and into April.
The hepatosomatic index showed a significant increase in February to 3.34 and a
significant decrease in March to 1.32, suggesting the liver was involved in
vitellogenin synthesis necessary to oocyte development. The somatic index
increased from 0.65 in October to 1.15 in December as the fish lay down
reserves, decreasing to 0.53 in February and rising throughout March and April.
Parasites and predators
Bykhovski (1949) reports a new species of monogenetic trematode, Ancyrocephalus
fluviatilis, from this species in the Karkheh River, Iran.
Mokhayer (1981c) reports a high infestation rate with larvae of the
nematode Contracaecum in Karun River fish. This has health
consequences for humans if fish are eaten raw, or are inadequately
salted, smoked or cooked. There has been no report yet of this
parasite from humans in Iran.
Moghainemi and Abbasi (1992) record a wide range of parasites from
this species in the Hawr al-Azim in Khuzestan. Mortazaei et al.
(2000) report the worm Neoechinorhynchus tylosuri in 54.8% of
fish examined from Khuzestan marshes. Farahnak (2000) and Farahnak et
al. (2002) record Anisakidae from this species in Khuzestan.
Economic importance
It appears in stores as a regular food fish in Ahvaz, Khuzestan, and is an
important food fish in southern Iraq (Al-Nasiri and Islam, 1978) with
212,850 kg marketed at Basrah from October 1975 to June 1977 (Sharma, 1980). It
forms about 29% of the total annual catches of freshwater fishes in southern
Iraq and about 7.4% of the total annual catch for the whole country despite its
small individual size (Mhaisen and Yousif, 1989; Mhaisen and Al-Jaffery, 1989).
Its caloric value is 162.42 Kcal/100g (Mahdi et al., 2005). Salim (1962)
records this species jumping into boats in Iraq when attracted by lights. It is
important on fish farms in Iraq where it competes for food with cultured carp
(Al-Shamma'a and Jasim, 1993) and Mhaisen and Al-Jaffery (1989) believed it
could be farmed successfully because of its high growth rate. Taken also in the
subsistence fisheries of the Indus River in Pakistan.
van den Eelaart (1954) gave the fishing season for this species as
December-January (peaking in January) in rivers, and December-March (January)
for lakes and marshes in Iraq.
Balasem et al. (2000) showed this species to be more sensitive to
pollution than other Iraqi species tested, namely Barbus luteus,
Cyprinus carpio, Carassius carassius (sic, probably C.
auratus) and Gambusia affinis (sic, probably G. holbrooki).
The LC50 of L. abu to copper after 72 hours exposure was 0.4
p.p.m. while the other species showed no mortality at this level. L. abu
was also more sensitive to arsenic than these species and also Barbus
sharpeyi, B. xanthopterus, B. grypus and Ctenopharyngodon
idella (Ali et al., 1999). Wahab (1999) also tested the toxicity of
four organophosphate insecticides to young fish, namely Dursban, Superacid,
Malathion and Nogos with LC50 at 0.102. 0.125, 0.875 and 1.2 5 mg/L
respectively. Salinity has a significant effect on the toxicity. This mullet has
also been used to assess the impact of gas oil from oil spills in the Shatt al
Arab on ionic regulation, on the chloride cells and on the gills (Faddagh et
al., 2004). It was found to be sensitive to this form of pollution and
suitable as an indicator species.
Conservation
Mhaisen and Yousif (1988) recommend banning fishing from
mid-January to mid-May during the spawning season and instituting an
increase in fishing net mesh size to 23.2 mm.
Further work
Variation in this species should be re-examined to determine if nominal
species and subspecies are valid. Biology and stock assessments for Iranian
waters need to be carried out.
Sources
Type material: Liza abu zarudnyi (ZISP 24336).
Iranian material: CMNFI 1979-0240, 3, 57.1-70.7 mm standard length, Fars, Lake Famur (ca. 29º31'N, ca. 51º50'E);
CMNFI 1979-0304, 12, 21.5-50.0 mm standard length, Fars, Lake Famur (ca. 29º31'N, ca. 51º50'E);
CMNFI 1979-0352, 5, 11.4-22.6 mm standard length, Khuzestan, marsh 57 km east of Abadan (30º33'30"N, 48º48'E);
CMNFI 1979-0353, 3, 15.7-18.3 mm standard length, Khuzestan, Karun River (30º22'30"N, 48º17'E);
CMNFI 1979-0354, 6, 18.4-25.2 mm standard length, Khuzestan, Karun River tributary (30º31'N, 48º19'E);
CMNFI 1979-0355, 3, 16.7-29.4 mm standard length, Khuzestan, Karun River tributary (30º35'N, 48º22'E);
CMNFI 1979-0360, 12, 17.7-35.8 mm standard length, Khuzestan, canal branch of Karkheh River (31º40'N, 48º35'E);
CMNFI 1982-0369, 11, 39.3-57.9 mm standard length, Khuzestan, Karkheh River (no other locality data);
CMNFI 1993-0149, 2, 106.0-142.2 mm standard length, Khuzestan, Karun River (no other locality data);
ZSM 25387, 4, 56.6-90.9 mm standard length, Khuzestan, Karun River at Ahvaz (31º19'N, 48º42'E);
ZSM 25700, 6, 41.0-57.4 mm standard length, Khuzestan, fish pond near Ahvaz (no other locality data);
uncatalogued 1, 169.8 mm standard length, Khuzestan (no other locality data).
Comparative material: BM(NH) 1971.4.2:1, 1, 130.2 mm standard length, Iraq, pond 25 km
from Mosul (no other locality data); BM(NH) 1973.5.21:179-184, 6, 41.4-51.4 mm
standard length, Iraq, Tigris River at Jadriyah, Baghdad (no other locality data); BM(NH) 1974.2.22:10-13,
4, 107.3-119.5 mm standard length, Iraq, Najab Bazar (no other locality data).
Liza aurata
(Risso, 1810)
Common names
kefal-e auratus, mahi kefal-e talaee (= golden mullet fish), kefal-e zarin, kafal.
[gizili kefal in Azerbaijanian; gatykelle, singil, orsbalyk in Turkmenian; singil' in Russian; golden mullet,
golden grey mullet, long-finned mullet].
Systematics
Mugil Auratus was originally described from Nice, France. No major relevant synonyms.
Key characters
This species is distinguished from its relative in the Caspian Sea
by each head and antero-dorsal flank scale having only one pit or
groove (occasionally double), 6-10 pyloric caeca of about equal length
or gradually becoming longer from ventral to dorsal, scales on the
snout ending anteriorly as a single row of small scales, and the oral
edge of the preorbital bone is moderately concave. The upper jaw
reaches posteriorly to a level with the posterior nostril, the only
species in the genus with this character. Young have two vertical dark lines at
the origin of the caudal fin rays and a herring bone pattern on the flanks
(Harrison in Miller, 2003).
Morphology
The first dorsal fin has 4 strong spines, the last weakly developed
compared to the first three. The second dorsal fin has 1-2 weak spines
(more resembling unbranched rays than spines) and 6-9, usually 7 or 8
soft rays (the second unbranched ray or spine may be branched near the
tip - the mode of 8 may include this ray in literature sources). The
anal fin has 3 spines and 7-10, usually 9 branched soft rays. The
pectoral fin has 2 unbranched rays and 13-17 branched rays and the
pelvic fin has 1 spine and 5 branched rays. Scales number 40-49 in
lateral series. There is no pectoral axillary scale. There is an
elongate first dorsal fin axillary scale and a pelvic axillary scale.
Scales have an almost vertical anterior margin with the anterior
dorsal and ventral corners square to pointed. This margin is slightly
indented where radii intersect it. The dorsal and ventral scale
margins are parallel and the posterior margin is rounded. The focus is
posterior and the posterior field has weak ctenii. Circuli are fine
and numerous and radii are limited to the the anterior field,
numbering up to 13 in fish examined here but probably size dependent.
The adipose membrane of the eye is rudimentary. The gill rakers are
fine and numerous, apparently finer and more numerous than in Liza
saliens, exceeding 100 in the larger fish examined here. Raker
number is probably size dependent. Rakers are slender, compressed and
serrated medially. When appressed, a raker reaches the thirteenth
raker below. The gut is elongate with several anterior and posterior loops
after a muscular stomach. The chromosome number is 2n=48 (Klinkhardt et al., 1995).
Meristic values for Iranian specimens are:- first dorsal fin spines 4(30);
second dorsal fin with 1(3) or 2(27) "spines" or unbranched
rays and 6(1), 7(27), 8(1) or 9(1) branched rays; pectoral fin
unbranched rays 2(30) and branched rays 15(7), 16(20) or 17(3); pelvic
fin branched rays 5(30); lateral line scales 41(2), 42(4), 43(8),
44(3), 45(8), 46(4) or 47(1); and total vertebrae ?.
Sexual dimorphism
Unknown.
Colour
The body is a dusky grey to blue-grey with a silvery flank and
belly. The back and upper flank have a series of dark to golden stripes. There
is a golden blotch on the operculum. The peritoneum is dark brown to black.
See also Key characters.
Size
Commercial catches in Iran during the 1950s weighed 0.3-0.8 kg,
sometimes as much as 1.5-1.8 kg (Farid-Pak, no date). Reaches 59 cm and 2.5 kg on
the coast of Turkmenistan. The Fisheries Research Centre in Mazandaran
caught an exceptional specimen of this species weighing 1.5 kg and
measuring 54 cm long (Iranian Fisheries and Research Training
Organization Newsletter, 3, 1994).
Distribution
Found in the Mediterranean and Black seas and from the British
Isles south to South Africa.
First reported from Iranian waters in 1933 by Shukolyukov (1937a)
and by Dmitriev (1946), this species and Liza saliens became
acclimated to the Caspian Sea over a period of 30-35 years and are
regarded as naturalized from the latter half of the 1960s onward in
Soviet waters (Marti, 1940; 1941; Khoroshko, 1982). It was first
introduced to the Soviet Caspian Sea in 1930-1931 (Baltz, 1991).
Kaplin in Mandych (1995) indicates that these grey mullets entered
from the Black Sea during a Caspian transgression but this is incorrect.
In Iran, this species is found in the lower reaches of rivers along the
Caspian coast, the Anzali Mordab and its outlets where numbers will
probably increase with increasing salinity (Holčík and Oláh, 1992), the Safid River, Gorgan Bay, the
southeast Caspian Sea, southwest Caspian Sea and south-central Caspian
Sea (Abbasi et al., 1999; Kiabi et al., 1999).
Zoogeography
This species is an exotic in Iran.
Habitat
This mullet inhabits the sea and enters the lower reaches of
rivers, and is occasionally found in nearby lakes. It is recorded from depths of
5-700 m (Caspian Sea Biodiversity Database, www.caspianenvironment.org). Eggs develop in the
open sea, larvae migrate to the coast and young feed along the shore
and in bays. It winters along the Iranian shore in coastal waters, has a feeding
migration in surface waters beginning in March to shallow areas of the middle
Caspian and, by September-October, mature fish migrate over deeper water
(300-700 m) of the middle and south Caspian to spawn. Feeding ceases at 6-8ºC
and death occurs below 1.5ºC. The optimum temperature is 23-25ºC but young can be
found in shallow water at 37.5ºC. It occurs from fresh water to salinities of 57‰ with
mass mortalities recorded at 65‰ (Caspian Sea Biodiversity Database, www.caspianenvironment.org).
Amini Ranjbar and Sotoudebnia (2005) assessed heavy metal (Zn, Cu, Pb and Cd)
concentrations in fish from the Caspian Sea in Mazandaran and found higher than
normal levels of Pb and Cd in muscle tissues.
Age and growth
Life span is up to 12 years in the Caspian Sea (Khoroshko, 1982).
Maturity is attained at 38-45 cm and an age of 3-4 years for males and
5-6 years for females (RaLonde and Walczak, 1972). Fish taken from
commercial catches in Iran are mostly 3-7 years old, 30.2-49.1 cm long
and weigh 354-1266 g (Razivi et al., 1972).
Fazli (1998) studied this species in the southeastern Caspian Sea of Iran and
found that both scales and opercula could be used in ageing, although the
latter were better. Maximum growth occurred at 3 years of age. The b value in
the relation between length and weight was 3.019 and sex ratio was 1:1.3 with
females dominating.
Food
This species is reported to enter the Anzali Mordab to feed from
January to March (Holčík and Oláh, 1992), a result of the increasing salinity of this lagoon.
Food items are small benthic invertebrates and detritus with some
insects and plankton. Most stomach contents contain numerous sand
grains. Adults scrape periphyton from rocks, silt and artificial structures.
Reproduction
This mullet spawns in more northerly waters of the Caspian than its
relative Liza saliens. Spawning begins in the middle of July in
the middle Caspian and ends in the south Caspian from the middle to
the end of October. Intensive spawning in the middle Caspian takes
place in August-September at 20-22°C
and a transparency of 7-11 m. Spawning depth is in the upper 0.5 m. The main spawning areas are at least
50-60 miles (80-96 km) from the coast (Avanesov, 1972) and this
prevents the spawning area being easily exploited. Fecundity exceeds
4.4 million eggs in the Caspian Sea (Khoroshko, 1982); in Mazandaran
average absolute fecundity reaches 772,350 eggs (Abdoli et al.,
1996). The eggs are pelagic and have a diameter of 0.9 mm. In Iran, Gorgan Bay is believed to be a
very important nursery and this is the major species caught by
fishermen in winter (www.ramsar.org/ram_rpt_37e.htm, downloaded 28 July 2000).
Shabanipour (1995) and Shabanipour and Heidari (2004) carried out histomorphological studies on the
ovary of this species in Iran. Fazli (1998) found populations in the
southeastern Caspian Sea of Iran spawned in September-November based on the
gonadsomatic index, with most spawning in October. Males are ready to reproduce
earlier than females. Absolute fecundity was 586,165 eggs.
Parasites and predators
Mokhayer (1976b) records the trematode Saccocoelium obesum
from this species on the Iranian coast. This is a parasite of the
intestine, with contamination rates of 90.4%, 88.6%, 81% and 34% for
autumn, winter, spring and summer respectively. Gills carry Microcotyle
mugilis at a rate of 2.0-2.3% and fish are also infected with
Ancylodiscoides (sic) at a rate of 19.6%, 43%, 72% and 43.3%
for autumn, winter, spring and summer respectively (Annual Report,
1994-1995, Iranian Fisheries Research and Training Organization,
Tehran, p. 27-28, 1996; Annual Report 1993-94, Iranian
Fisheries Research and Training Organization, Tehran, p. 49-50, 1995).
Naem et al. (2002) found species in the monogenean treamtode genus
Ligophorus on the gills of this species from the western branch of the Safid
River.
This species is eaten by Sander spp., Silurus glanis and Huso huso.
At Ziba-kenar beach, Gilan in February 2004, this species showed
erratic swimming and belly-up posture. A post-mortem showed gas accumulation and
distension in the swimbladder, a yellowish liver, liquefaction of the gall
bladder, excess micro-sand in the the caecum and hyperaemia of the intestine.
The cause is thought to be an infectious agent closely related to a betanovirus
or nodavirus (Iranian Fisheries Research Organization Newsletter, 38:3, 2004; Zorriehzahra et
al., 2005).
Economic importance
The catch in Iran for this species and Liza saliens from
1956/1957 to 1961/1962 varied from 166,197 kg to 960,282 kg (Vladykov,
1964) and from 1965/66 to 1968/69 varied from 490 to 1916 tonnes (Andersskog,
1970). Vladykov (1964) and RaLonde and Walczak (1972) cite figures for
the Bandar-e Anzali region for Liza aurata from 1937/38 to
1961/62 of 14 kg to about 113 t and for 1969/70 a catch of 1,085 t was
recorded, while for the whole Northern Shilot (Fisheries Company) in
the period 1965/66 to 1968/69 catches varied between 548 t and 1916 t.
Holčík and Oláh (1992) report a catch of only 3 kg in the Anzali Mordab in
1990. The Food and Agriculture Organization, Rome records the
following catches for the 6 years from 1980 to 1985 for mullets in
Iran, presumably from the Caspian Sea:- 150, 400, 1500, 2733, 2135,
and 2200 t respectively. Moghim et al. (1994) give a total
biomass of 2400 tonnes for this species in the southern coastal area
of the Caspian Sea with a maximum sustainable yield of 960 tonnes
(figures for Liza saliens are 7000 tonnes and 2900 tonnes
respectively). Caspian Sea catches of this species in Iran for the
year 1993-1994 was 22% of the bony fish catch with Liza saliens
comprising only 4% (the major part of the catch was safid mahi, Rutilus
frisii, at 62%)(Annual Report 1993-94, Iranian Fisheries
Research and Training Organization, Tehran, p. 83, 1995). Catches in former Soviet waters of the Caspian Sea are about three-quarters or
more this species and one-quarter Liza saliens (Khoroshko,
1982). The main season for fishing in the Caspian Sea off Iran is from
December to February, peaking in January (Farid-Pak, no date). Abdoli et
al. (1996) note that beach seiner cooperatives started fishing a
month earlier than usual in 1993, coinciding with the spawning season
in October. Annual catch variations occur in Iranian waters, this
species having an abundance of 86.5% in 1994 decreasing to 38% in 1995
(Iranian Fisheries Research and Training Organization Newsletter,
9:5, 1995). The catch of this species declined from 76.9% to 41.2% of
the total mullet catch from 1993-1994 to 1994-1995 through overfishing
of juveniles (Iranian Fisheries Research and Training Organization
Newsletter, 11:7, 1996). Abdolmalaki (2001) records a catch per unit effort for beach seining as 93
kg in 1991, falling to 33 kg in 1997 through overfishing. The mean length of the
catch in Guilan decreased from 1991 to 1997 while in Mazandaran it increased.
Fazli and Ghaninejad (2004) give the year 2001 as that of the maximum mullet
catch in their survey of the years 1993-2001, the catch increasing through this
period. Catch per unit effort in each seine declined from 114 kg in 1993 to 43
kg in 1996, increasing to 66.4 kg and 78.4 kg in 2000 and 2001. For the years
2000 and 2001, L. aurata had a mean fork length of 32.7 and 32.3 cm, a
weight of 418.3 and 419.8 g, and a K value of 0.61 and 0.93. They concluded that
the harvest of this species is at a sustainable level. Heydatifard et al. (2002) state that its catch is greater than that of
other bony fishes (presumably excluding kilka) in the southern Caspian Sea.
Hosseini et al. (2004) determined the shelf life of this species on
ice in Iran was 10 days. Mazandaran fish have an average fat composition of
9.25%, 72% being unsaturated. Omega-3 fatty acids constitute 18.7% of the total
fatty acids with a significant ratio to omega-6 fatty acids of 1.97 (Bedayatifard
et al., 2002). Akhondzadeh Basteh et al. (2006) found the
bacterial pathogens Listeria monocytogenes and Staphylococcus aureus
in salted Liza aurata and Vibrio haemolyticus in fresh and salted L. auratus.
Conservation
The successful introduction of this species and Liza saliens
in the Caspian Sea has apparently led to a decline in various clupeid
species (Alosa) and of Sander marinum (Baltz, 1991). Beach seines with mesh sizes of 28 mm, 33 mm and 36 mm caught
non-standard fish as 43.3%, 35% and 2.2% of the total catch
respectively. Seines with a cod end of at least 36 mm are recommended
for stock protection (Iranian Fisheries Research and Training
Organization Newsletter, 6:8, 1994) (note the report names the
fish as Mugil cephalus but the catch was probably a mix of Liza
aurata and L. saliens).
Contamination of this species in Iranian waters with Pb, Ni and Zn was examined
by Fazeli et al. (2005). The highest contamination was in the southwest
part of the Caspian followed by the south centre and the southeast. The highest
concentrations observed were 17.51 mg/kg for lead, 6.23 mg/kg for nickel and
647.28 mg/kg for zinc.
Further work
As an important fisheries species, population numbers and biology should be
carefully monitored on an ongoing basis.
Sources
Distinguishing characters based on Trewavas and Ingham (1972);
Sakri (1993) gives an account in Farsi on the spawning and catch of
mullets in the Iranian Caspian.
Type material: None.
Iranian material: CMNFI 1970-0509, 1, 124.2 mm standard length, Gilan, Safid River (37º24'N, 49º58'E);
CMNFI 1970-0535, 1, 137.2 mm standard length, Gilan, Shafa River (37º35'N, 49º09'E);
CMNFI 1970-0543, 3, 33.5-38.5 mm standard length, Gilan, Caspian Sea at Hasan Kiadeh (37º24'N, 49º58'E);
CMNFI 1970-0543A, 4, 33.1-60.5 mm standard length, Gilan, Caspian Sea at Hasan Kiadeh (37º24'N, 49º58'E);
CMNFI 1970-0563, 19, 52.8-87.0 mm standard length, Gilan, Caspian Sea, Kazian Beach (ca. 37º29'N, ca. 49º29'E);
CMNFI 1970-0565, 4, 52.2-93.0 mm standard length, Gilan, Safid River estuary (ca. 37º28'N, ca. 49º54'E);
CMNFI 1970-0581, 2, 147.7-151.5 mm standard length, Gilan, Caspian Sea near Hasan Kiadeh (37º24'N, 49º58'E);
CMNFI 1970-0587, 1, 78.9 mm standard length, Mazandaran, Babol River (36º43'N, 53º39'E);
CMNFI 1971-0326A, 20, 30.0-46.0 mm standard length, Gilan, Caspian Sea near Bandar-e Anzali (37º28'N, 49º27'E);
CMNFI 1979-0430, 1, 42.0 mm standard length, Mazandaran, river 1 km east of Now Shahr (36º39'N, 51º31'E);
CMNFI 1979-0470, 19, 29.4-57.4 mm standard length, Mazandaran, stream 21 km west of Alamdeh (36º35'N, 51º43'E);
CMNFI 1979-0471, 3, 56.7-65.8 mm standard length, Mazandaran, Caspian Sea 14 km west of Alamdeh (36º35'N, 51º48'E);
CMNFI 1979-0686, 2, 59.1-87.3 mm standard length, Gilan, Safid River near Hasan Kiadeh (37º24'N, 49º58'E);
CMNFI 1980-0117, 2, 99.7-114.5 mm standard length, Gilan, Golshan River (37º26'N, 49º40'E);
CMNFI 1980-0127, 6, 29.5-36.9 mm standard length, Gilan, Caspian Sea near Hasan Kiadeh (37º24'N, 49º58'E);
CMNFI 1980-0146, 1, 135.7 mm standard length, Mazandaran, Gorgan Mordab at Ashuradeh-ye Kuchak(36º50'N, 53º56'E);
CMNFI 1980-0149, 1, 38.4 mm standard length, Gilan, Chabak River (37º21'N, 49º50'E).
Liza saliens
(Risso, 1810)
Common names
kefal-e saliens, kafal-e poozehbarik, kafal.
[sivriburun kefal in Azerbaijanian; vitibutum or gatykelle in Turkmenian; ostronosik in Russian; sharpnose
mullet, small mullet, grey mullet, leaping mullet].
Systematics
Mugil Saliens was originally described from Nice, France. No major relevant synonyms.
Key characters
This species is distinguished from its relative in the Caspian Sea
by each head and antero-dorsal flank scale having 2-7 or more grooves
(mostly 2 grooves), pyloric caeca in two groups, 3-5 short and 3-4
long (total 7-9), scales on the snout ending anteriorly as numerous
rows of small scales, and the oral edge of the preorbital bone is
deeply notched. Young lack the vertical dark lines at the origin of the caudal
fin rays and the herring bone flank pattern seen in L. aurata (Harrison in Miller, 2003).
Morphology
The first dorsal fin has 4 spines, the last one weakly developed
compared to the first three. The second dorsal fin has 1-3, usually 1or 2,
spines (more resembling unbranched rays than true spines) and 6-9,
usually 8 or 9 soft rays (the second unbranched ray or spine may be
branched near the tip - modes of 8 or 9 in literature may include this ray). The anal fin has 3-4, usually 3, spines and 7-10,
usually 9, soft rays. The pectoral fin has 2 unbranched rays and 14-17
branched rays and the pelvic fin has 1 spine and 5 branched rays.
Scales number 42-50 in lateral series. There is no pectoral axillary
scale. There is an elongate first dorsal fin axillary scale and a
pelvic axillary scale. Scales have an almost vertical anterior margin
with the anterior dorsal and ventral corners square to pointed. This
margin is slightly indented where radii intersect it. The dorsal and
ventral scale margins are parallel and the posterior margin is
rounded. The focus is posterior and the posterior field has weak
ctenii. Circuli are fine and numerous and radii are limited to the the
anterior field, numbering up to 10 in fish examined here but probably
size dependent. The gill rakers are fine and numerous, but not as fine
and numerous as in Liza aurata, exceeding 70 in the larger fish
examined here, and probably size dependent. When appressed, a raker reaches raker
6 or 7 below. Rakers have a serrated medial edge. Vertebrae
23-25. The gut is elongate with 2 posterior loops after a muscular stomach. The
chromosome number is 2n=48 (Klinkhardt et al., 1995).
Meristic values for Iranian specimens are:- first dorsal fin spines 4(30);
second dorsal fin with 1(6), 2(22) or 3(2) "spines" or unbranched rays and 6(1), 7(20) or 8(9) branched rays; pectoral fin
unbranched rays 2(30) and branched rays 14(2), 15(27) or 16(1); pelvic
fin branched rays 5(30); lateral line scales 42(2), 44(6), 46(6),
47(8), 48(4) or 49(4); and total vertebrae ?.
Sexual dimorphism
Males are smaller than females.
Colour
The back is dark grey to blue-grey or grey-brown, the belly pale to silvery
or yellowish, and the silvery-grey flanks have about 7 bluish stripes. There is a golden blotch on the
operculum. The peritoneum is brown to black.
Size
Commercial catches in Iran during the 1950s weighed 0.3-0.8 kg,
sometimes as much as 1.5-1.8 kg (Farid-Pak, no date). Reaches 40.0 cm.
Distribution
Found in the Mediterranean and Black seas and along the Atlantic coast to South Africa.
First reported from Iranian waters by Dmitriev (1946), this species
was introduced to the Soviet Caspian Sea in 1930-1931 (Baltz, 1991). In Iran it
is reported from the lower reaches of such rivers as the Gorgan, Gharasu, Tajan,
Talar, Babol, Haraz, Sardab, Pol-e Rud, and Safid, the Anzali Mordab and Gorgan Bay, the southeast
Caspian Sea, southwest Caspian Sea and south-central Caspian Sea (Roshan tabari,
1987; Abbasi et al., 1999; Kiabi et al., 1999).
Zoogeography
This species is an exotic in Iran.
Habitat
This is a pelagic species found mostly in inshore areas and entering lagoons and rivers.
It is found in surface waters over depths of 5-700 m at salinities of 4-13‰.
It migrates to the southern Caspian in autumn when water temperatures fall (Caspian Sea Biodiversity Database,
www.caspianenvironment.org). Generally it tolerates fluctuations of 5-27Cº and 11-28‰ although
fry need time to adjust to lower salinities (Harrison in Miller, 2003).
Age and growth
Life span is up to 10 years in the Caspian Sea (Khoroshko, 1982).
Males mature at 3 years and females at 4 years (Caspian Sea Biodiversity Database, www.caspianenvironment.org).
The maximum growth rate in fish sampled between Babolsar and Bandar-e
Torkeman in the Iranian Caspian was observed in fish age 3 years. The
operculum gave better ages than scales (Fazli, 2000).
Food
Diet is very similar to that of Liza aurata, comprising
detritus, periphyton and small benthic organisms
Stomach contents contain sand grains in Iranian fish.
Reproduction
Spawning starts at the end of May and the beginning of June in the
southern Caspian Sea and continues until the end of September and the
beginning of October, most intensively between June and August off the
Turkmenistan coast according to Avanesov (1972). Iranian fish spawned
in July-August and males ripen earlier than females (Fazli, 2000; Yousefian et al., 2003).
Yousefian et al. (2003) give details of oogenesis, detailing the stages in gonad
development. Spawning occurs over depth ranges of 5-700 m but most
spawning in the southeastern Caspian is at 5-7 m. Temperatures are between 17 and 29°C
with the most intensive spawning when sea surface temperature is 25-29°C.
Water transparency is 1-9 m. The greatest aggregations of eggs are
found 5-7 miles (8-11 km) from shore in the eastern Caspian. Fecundity
exceeds 2.1 million eggs in the Caspian Sea (Khoroshko, 1982). Egg diameter is
up to 0.8 mm. Females predominate in Iranian samples examined by Fazli (2000) at a ratio of 1:3.14.
Parasites and predators
This species has a worm parasite in the intestine, Saccocoelium
obesum, with contamination rates of 62%, 10.7%, 12% and 22.2% for
autumn, winter, spring and summer respectively, lower than in Liza
aurata. Gills carry Microcotyle mugilis at a rate of
2.0-2.3% and fish are also infected with Ancylodiscoides (sic)
at a rate of none, none, 1.6% and 4% for autumn, winter, spring and
summer respectively, much lower than in Liza aurata (Annual
Report, 1994-1995, Iranian Fisheries Research and Training
Organization, Tehran, p. 27-28, 1996; Annual Report 1993-94,
Iranian Fisheries Research and Training Organization, Tehran, p. 49-50, 1995).
Economic importance
The main season for fishing in the Caspian Sea off Iran is from
December to February, peaking in January (Farid-Pak, no date). Some
catch information is summarised above under Liza aurata which
is 5-6 times more abundant in catches. However a report on the
1994-1995 catch showed a severe reduction of 2500 tonnes, as Liza
saliens replaced L. aurata as the main part of the catch. L.
aurata declined from 76.9% of the mullet catch in 1993-1994 to
41.2% in 1994-1995, the cause being overfishing of juveniles (Iranian
Fisheries Research and Training Organization Newsletter, 11:7,
1996). Moghim et al. (1994) give a total biomass of 7000 t
for this species in the southern coastal area of the Caspian Sea with
a maximum sustainable yield of 2900 t (figures for Liza aurata
are 2400 tonnes and 960 tonnes respectively). Annual catch variations
occur in Iranian waters, this species having an abundance of 13.5% in
1994 increasing to 62% in 1995 (Iranian Fisheries Research and
Training Organization Newsletter, 9:5, 1995).
Abdolmalaki (2001) records a catch per unit effort for beach seining as 78
kg in 1991, falling to 15 kg in 1997 through overfishing. The mean length of the
catch in Gilan and Mazandaran did not decrease from 1991 to 1997, the former in
contrast to Liza aurata. Fazli and Ghaninejad (2004) give the year 2001
as that of the maximum mullet catch in their survey of the years 1993-2001, the
catch increasing through this period. Catch per unit effort in each seine
declined from 114 kg in 1993 to 43 kg in 1996, increasing to 66.4 kg and 78.4 kg
in 2000 and 2001. For the years 2000 and 2001, L. saliens had a mean fork
length of 27.5 and 25.1 cm, a weight of 224.7 and 179.1 g, and a K value of 0.91 and 0.71.
Conservation
See above under Liza aurata.
Mercury levels at 0.0102-0.108 mg kg -1 w.w. in this species from the
Iranian shore were lower than the WHO guideline of 0.5 mg kg-1 w.w. (Agah
et al., 2007).
Further work
As an important fisheries species, population numbers and biology should be
carefully monitored on an ongoing basis.
Sources
Distinguishing characters based on Trewavas and Ingham (1972).
Type material: None.
Iranian material: CMNFI 1970-0510, 34, 38.1-72.8 mm standard length, Gilan, Golshan River (37º26'N, 49º40'E);
CMNFI 1970-0507, 9, 23.6-46.8 mm standard length, Gilan, Caspian Sea at Hasan Kiadeh (37º24'N, 49º58'E);
CMNFI 1970-0508, 1, 50.6 mm standard length, Gilan, Safid River at Hasan Kiadeh (37º24'N, 49º58'E);
CMNFI 1970-0509, 4, 31.9-66.8 mm standard length, Gilan, Safid River at Hasan Kiadeh(37º24'N, 49º58'E);
CMNFI 1970-0528, 16, 43.6-64.4 mm standard length, Mazandaran, Tajan River estuary (36º49'N, 53º06'30"E);
CMNFI 1970-0535, 1, 153.3 mm standard length, Gilan, Shafa River (37º35'N, 49º09'E);
CMNFI 1970-0539, 43, 25.1-102.0 mm standard length, Gilan, Caspian Sea off Bandar-e Anzali (37º28'N, 49º27'E);
CMNFI 1970-0543A, 2, 76.7-79.9 mm standard length, Gilan, Caspian Sea at Hasan Kiadeh (37º24'N, 49º58'E);
CMNFI 1970-0549, 1, 48.1 mm standard length, Gilan, Qareh Su near Alb Imamzadeh (no other locality data);
CMNFI 1970-0565, 3, 91.8-108.8 mm standard length, Gilan, Safid River estuary (ca. 37º28'N, ca. 49º54'E);
CMNFI 1970-0577, 13, 22.1-38.8 mm standard length, Gilan, Caspian Sea near Astara (ca. 38º26'N, ca. 48º53'E);
CMNFI 1970-0581, 4, 41.0-71.0 mm standard length, Gilan, Caspian Sea near Hasan Kiadeh (37º24'N, 49º58'E);
CMNFI 1970-0586, 8, 27.3-50.4 mm standard length, Mazandaran, Gorgan Mordab at Ashuradeh-ye Kuchak(36º50'N, 53º56'E);
CMNFI 1970-0587, 165, 15.7-47.9 mm standard length, Mazandaran, Babol River at Babol Sar (36º43'N, 52º39'E);
CMNFI 1970-0590, 11, 28.6-54.0 mm standard length, Mazandaran, Shesh Deh River near Babol Sar (ca. 36º43'N, ca.52º39'E;
CMNFI 1979-0470, 17, 16.6-43.4 mm standard length, Mazandaran, stream 21 km west of Alamdeh (36º35'N, 51º43'E);
CMNFI 1979-0471, 1, 59.1 mm standard length, Mazandaran, Caspian Sea 14 km west of Alamdeh (36º35'N, 51º48'E);
CMNFI 1979-0477, 1, 16.7 mm standard length, Mazandaran, Gorgan Mordab at Bandar-e Shah (36º54'N, 54º02'30"E);
CMNFI 1979-0788, 1, 22.7 mm standard length, Mazandaran, Gorgan River at Khadje Nafas (37º00'N, 54º07'E);
CMNFI 1980-0120, 9, 48.8-73.2 mm standard length, Mazandaran, Babol River at Babol Sar (36º43'N, 52º39'E);
CMNFI 1980-0126, 2, 217.5-244.2 mm standard length, Gilan, Caspian Sea near Bandar-e Anzali (37º28'N, 49º27'E);
CMNFI 1980-0127, 5, 22.8-52.8 mm standard length, Gilan, Caspian Sea near Hasan Kiadeh (37º24'N, 49º58'E);
CMNFI 1980-0129, 18, 28.3-64.2 mm standard length, Mazandaran, Tajan River estuary (36º49'N, 53º06'30"E);
CMNFI 1980-0136, 13, 35.9-76.8 mm standard length, Mazandaran, Fereydun Kenar River estuary (36º41'N, 52º29'E);
CMNFI 1980-0146, 2, 88.8-96.6 mm standard length, Mazandaran, Gorgan Mordab at Ashuradeh-ye Kuchak(36º50'N, 53º56'E);
CMNFI 1980-0149, 10, 36.0-83.2 mm standard length, Gilan, Chabak River (37º21'N, 49º50'E);
CMNFI 1980-0157, 77, 25.7-50.1 mm standard length, Mazandaran, Gorgan River estuary (36º59'N, 53º59'30"E);
CMNFI 1993-0144, 2, 78.4-92.2 mm standard length, Mazandaran, Neka Power Plant (36º51'48'N, 53º23'24"E).
Liza subviridis
(Valenciennes in Cuvier and Valenciennes, 1836)
Common names
biah or biah arabi at Bushehr, garriz at Bandar Abbas; meid or maid
(for small specimens); kefal posht sabz.
[biag, meid or maid, biah akhtar, beyah akhtar in Arabic; greenback mullet, greenback grey mullet, silver mullet].
Systematics
Originally described from Malabar, India. Synonyms are Mugil dussumieri Valenciennes in Cuvier and
Valenciennes, 1836 and Mugil jerdoni Day, 1876. Placed in the
genus Chelon Rose, 1793 in Randall (1995b).
Key characters
The preorbital bone does not occupy the whole space between the eye
and upper lip as in all other mullets.
Morphology
The head is wide and flattened with head length 23-27% of standard
length. There is a well-developed adipose eyelid, covering about half
of the iris, but this is absent in young fish. The lower lip has a
weak to marked symphysial knob (authors differ) and both lips are
thin. The upper jaw extends back on a level with the anterior nostril
to the anterior eye rim. Upper jaw teeth are in several rows and
ciliiform lower jaw teeth in one row. The preorbital bone is strongly
notched anteriorly and only occupies three-quarters of the space
between the eye and upper lip. Scales are regularly arranged and are
dense on the second dorsal and anal fins. The second dorsal fin origin
lies over the anterior half of the anal fin base. The pectoral
axillary scale is rudimentary or absent. The pectoral fin does not
reach back on a level with the first dorsal fin origin and is 74-76% of head length.
The first dorsal fin has 4 spines, the second dorsal fin has 1
spine and 8-9, usually 8, soft rays and the anal fin has 3 spines and
8-9, usually 9, soft rays. Scales in lateral series 27-32. Transverse
scales 10-11, usually 11. Pyloric caeca 4-5.
Ahmed and Hussain (2003) describe the larvae of this species from Khawr az Zubayr
and the Shatt al Arab estuary. Al-Hassan and Madhi (1989) studied enzyme polymorphisms in populations from
the Shatt al Arab, Khawr az Zubayr and Kuwait but found no evidence of
sub-population differentiation. A single stock is found in the northern Persian Gulf.
Sexual Dimorphism
Unknown.
Colour
The back is dark to light green or greyish-green, the flanks
silvery to white and the belly white. There may be 3-7 blackish
stripes along the flank but these may not always be obvious. The
caudal fin is bluish and has a black margin, other fins are hyaline.
Size
Attains 39.5 cm total length and 270 g (Al-Hassan and Al-Seyab, 1992).
Distribution
Found in the Persian Gulf and eastwards to India, China, northern
Australia and Polynesia.
Reported from the Shatt al Arab and Hawr al Hammar, Iraq near
Iranian Khuzestan by Al-Hassan et al. (1989), Al-Hassan and Al-Seyab
(1992) and Hussain et al. (1997; 2001).
Records of Liza dussumieri from the Tigris River at Amara
and Baghdad, the Euphrates River and the Shatt al Arab by Kennedy
(1937), Khalaf (1961), Mahdi (1962), Al-Nasiri and Hoda (1976) and
Hussain et al. (1989), if correctly identified, are referred to
this species (Thomson and Luther in Fischer and Bianchi, 1984).
Recorded from the lower Mand River in Bushehr Province at 28°14'N,
51°51'E, 28°11'N, 51°32'E and 28°07'N, 51°24'E by
M. Rabbaniha (pers. comm., 1995) and from Khuzestan in the Zohreh and
Bahmanshir rivers and the Hawr al Azim by Najafpour (1997). Records
from Iran could be L. vaigiensis (q.v.). No specimens have been
examined by me to confirm these anecdotal and literature records.
Zoogeography
A widely distributed marine species, this mullet also enters and is
resident in fresh waters but is dependent on reproduction of marine
populations to maintain the freshwater ones.
Habitat
This species lives in the sea, particularly in coastal waters,
lagoons and estuaries, but regularly enters fresh water.
At a freshwater station on the Shatt al Basrah Canal, Iraq with salinities up to 3.5‰, Al-Daham and Yousif (1990)
found this species to be dominant, comprising 59.6% by number and 40.0% by
weight. Eggs of this species and L. klunzingeri were most abundant in the
inner part of the Shatt al Arab estuary in February with larvae most
abundant in February and April. The temperature range for several sites was
12.5-22ºC and salinity 32-38‰. Temperature is the most important factor
influencing spawning (Ahmed and Hussain, 2000). This was one of the more
abundant species in the recovering Hawr al Hammar of southern Iraq in 2005-2006
and in the marshes in the 1980's (Hussain and Ali, 2006).
Age and Growth
In the Shatt al Basrah Canal of southern Iraq, populations of this species
are comprised of age groups 1 to 6 but most fish are in age groups 1 and 2
(Al-Daham and Wahab, 1991). Age 2 dominates from February to April and age 1
from June to January. Females are slightly longer in each age group and have a
longer life span than males. The oldest females are age 6 and 303 mm and the
oldest males age 4 and 251 mm. Males are less numerous than females with a sex
ratio 1.0:1.4. Maturity is attained at age 1 and the smallest mature male is 137
mm and the smallest mature female is 142 mm. Ali et al. (1999) examined
the stock of this species in Khawr Abdullah and found the infinity length (L∞)
to be 34.3 cm total length (TL), the growth coefficient (K) 0.31, annual total
mortality (Z) 1.06, natural mortality (M) 0.70 and fishing mortality (F) 0.366.
The exploitation rate (E) was 0.34 indicating that the stock was slightly
exploited during September 1989-August 1990. The length-weight relationship was
W = 0.0000208 L2.985. Mohamed et al. (1998) found, for fish
from the northwest Arabian (= Persian) Gulf, a length-weight relationship of W =
1.34 x 10-5 L2.961, condition factor ranged from 0.98 to
1.21 and the growth model was Lt = 308 (1-e-0.225 (t + 0.618)).
Ali et al. (1999) summarise annual growth of this species from their
own and other studies as follows, attributing differences to differing
methodologies:-
|
Author |
sex |
L∞ |
K |
1 |
2 |
3 |
4 |
5 |
6 |
|
Wahab (1986) (Shatt al Basrah) |
♂
♀ |
29.4
40.2 |
0.39
0.151 |
14.6
15.5 |
19.3
20.5 |
22.1
23.0 |
24.0
25.2 |
-
27.3 |
-
29.0 |
|
Al-Hisnawi (1990) (Khawr az Zubayr) |
♂
♀ |
25.2
48.9 |
0.474
0.141 |
11.4
11.35 |
16.55
16.78 |
19.84
20.92 |
21.85
24.31 |
-
27.82 |
-
30.5 |
|
Mohammed et al. (1998) (Northwest Arabian
Gulf) |
♂ + ♀ |
30.8 |
0.225 |
9.4 |
13.6 |
17.0 |
19.7 |
21.9 |
23.7 |
|
Ali et al. (1999) (Khawr
Abdullah) |
♂ + ♀ |
34.3 |
0.31 |
8.9 |
15.5 |
20.37 |
23.97 |
26.65 |
28.64 |
Muhsin (1988) determined protein, lipid and ash content of fish taken monthly
from the marine Khawr az Zubayr and found fluctuations to follow the reproductive
cycle. Lipid content of the liver increased in winter and of the carcass in
winter and spring, the pre-spawning period, along with increases in the
gonadosomatic and hepatosomatic indices. The latter indices peaked in March and
decreased sharply until June. Total protein decreased during winter and spring
from the carcass and in spring from liver and ovaries as they were used for
energy and to support maturation of the ovaries.
In Malaysia, maturity is attained at 95-115 mm for males and 105-115 mm for
females (Chan and Chua, 1980).
Food
Food items are algae, diatoms and detritus extracted from ingested mud and
sand. Al-Hassan and Madhi (1987) include higher plants as part of the diet and
Al-Hassan and Al-Seyab (1992) copepods for Iraqi waters. Mohamed et al.
(1998) found this species to be a detritivore in the northwest
Persian Gulf. Hussain and Ali (2006) examined feeding relationships among
fishes in the Hawr al Hammar, Iraq and found this species to be a herbivore, 75.2% of
the diet being plants and algae. In another study of the recovering Hawr al Hammar, diet
was 80.84% algae and 15.66% diatoms with amounts of crustaceans and plants being
less than 10% each (Hussain et al., 2006).
In Malaysian estuaries and coastal areas, Chan and Chua (1979) working in
Malaysia found this species to feed only on zooplankton when less than 12 mm
standard length, becoming bottom feeding at 16-20 mm on zooplankton, diatoms and
detritus and by 24 mm zooplankton was absent but filamentous algae was added
where available. The proportion of the various food items varied with the locality.
Reproduction
Spawning occurs in the sea, with all eggs released at once in a Malaysian
population (Chan and Chua, 1980). Al-Daham and Wahab (1991) were unable to
locate eggs and larvae in fresh waters of Iraq. They believe that adults leave
the Shatt al Basrah Canal to spawn in the sea. However, Al-Hassan and Madhi
(1987) give a reproductive season of February through April in the Shatt al Arab,
Iraq and Ahmed and Hussain (2003) give March to June in the offshore area near the
mouth of the Khawr az Zubayr and Shatt al Arab. Muhsin (1988) determined
April-June to be the spawning season, with mature ova released in May, in the
Khawr az Zubayr (see above). Male and female gonads are best developed in
February to March and spawning is deduced to have occurred from March to May,
possibly offshore in the Persian Gulf. In Malaysia, spawning can
occur from June to November and in the off-season (Chan and Chua, 1980). In
Iraq, fry 27-40 mm in length are captured from April to June in fresh water. The
adult mullet return to fresh water after spawning. Fecundity was 133,224-295,065
eggs for fish 182-243 mm total length, this being higher than in Malaysia at
40,000-145,000. Fecundity is somewhat lower than in other mullets but may be
attributed to year round spawning at some localities (Chen and Chua, 1980).
Al-Hassan and Madhi (1987) give a fecundity of 549,278 eggs with egg diameter up
to 0.65 mm and Al-Hassan and Al-Seyab (1992) give 580-590,000 eggs for their
large specimen from Hawr al Hammar.
Parasites and predators
Unknown.
Economic importance
This species forms part of coastal fisheries in shallow waters and
is caught with a variety of nets, particularly seines, stationary
traps, gill nets and cast nets. It forms a substantial part of
brackish water fisheries in southern Iraq, being the most abundant
species in estuaries, and economically the most important mullet (Al-Daham
and Wahab, 1991). Ali et al. (1999) gave a
catch of 35 t in Khawr Abdullah, Iraq, almost 6% of the marine catch. Mohamed et al.
(1998) gave a value of 3.4% of the commercial catch for this species with catch
rates in the northwest Arabian (= Persian) Gulf of 0.15 kg/h in June to 0.75
kg/h in October. This species is potentially important in fish
culture as it is herbivorous. Consequently ponds can be fertilised
inexpensively and plant food supplements such as rice bran and peanut
meal can be given. Chan and Chua (1979) recommend that fish for
stocking should be at least 30 mm standard length as their bottom
feeding habit is then most suitable for pond culture.
The proximate chemical composition measured in fish from the Basrah fish
market was moisture 76.16%, protein 16.82%, fat 5.1% and ash 1.82% and the
general condition was a maximum of 1.78 (Ali et al., 2004). It is
characterised as a fatty fish according to a lipid content 9-14% by wet weight
of muscle in autumn (Hantoush et al., 1999).
Conservation
Population numbers and trends are unknown so conservation
requirements cannot be ascertained.
Further work
Materials of freshwater mullets should be collected in Iranian
waters and studied for their identity and biology.
Sources
Description based on literature sources, particularly Blegvad and
Løppenthin (1944), Fischer and Bianchi (1984), Talwar and Kacker
(1984) and Thomson (1997).
Liza vaigiensis
(Quoy and Gaimard, 1824)
Common names
[massiyat or biah in Iraq; square-tail mullet, diamond-scaled mullet, diamond-scale grey mullet, brown-banded mullet].
Systematics
Originally described from Waigeo, Indonesia. Placed in the genus Ellochelon Whitley, 1930 in Randall (1995b).
Key characters
This species is uniquely characterised in this area of the northen
Indian Ocean by the caudal fin being only slightly emarginate. All
other local mullets have an obviously forked tail fin.
Morphology
The preorbital bone is notched anteriorly and is wide, filling the
space between the eye and the upper lip. The head is broad and
flattened on top, with head length 24-30% of standard length. The eye
has adipose tissue around its margin. Lips are thin but the lower lip
has a high symphysial knob. There are ciliate teeth on the lips, in
1-2 rows on the upper lip and 1 row on the lower lip. Larger fish lose
the upper lip teeth at >250 mm standard length and the lower lip
teeth at ca. 100 mm standard length. About half of the anal fin base
lies anterior to the level of the second dorsal fin origin. The
pectoral axillary scale is rudimentary or absent. The pectoral fin
does not reach back on a level with the first dorsal fin origin. The
second dorsal and anal fins are densely scaled. Hoda (1978) describes the larva in Iraq.
First dorsal fin spines 4, second dorsal fin with 1 spine and 7-9
soft rays, anal fin with 3 spines and 8 soft rays, pectoral fin with
15-18 branched rays, lateral series scales 24-29, transverse scales
(from first dorsal fin origin to pelvic fin origin) 9-11, and
predorsal scales 15-16. Gill rakers 40-61.
Sexual Dimorphism
Unknown.
Colour
The back is olive brown to pale olive, the flanks silvery and the
belly white with yellowish tinges. Upper flank scales have
characteristic brown blotches which appear to run together to form
about 5 stripes. The iris has yellow patches. Fin margins are dusky to
black but the body of each fin is yellowish. Young fish have black
pectoral fins but in adults the lower half is yellow. The caudal, anal
and pelvic fins are a bright yellow in young fish while the second
dorsal fin is dark on its distal half.
Size
Reaches 63 cm.
Distribution
This species is widespread in the tropical Indo-Pacific Ocean from
Africa to Japan and Tahiti including the Persian Gulf. It also enters
fresh waters. Reported from the Shatt al Arab, Iraq near Iranian
Khuzestan by Al-Nasiri and Hoda (1976). A single specimen from
Khuzestan, Iran confirms its presence in fresh water. Akbari (1998) records it
from coastal and estuarine waters in Hormozgan. Other records
from Iranian rivers draining to the Persian Gulf (e.g. Dez, Karun,
Dalaki and Mand rivers) may be this species but could also be L. subviridis.
Zoogeography
A widely distributed marine species, this mullet also enters and is
resident in fresh waters but is dependent on reproduction of marine
populations to maintain the freshwater ones.
Habitat
This species is found in coastal waters over sand, in lagoons and
over reef flats and commonly enters fresh waters. It apparently enters
fresh water during the rainy season elsewhere in its range, ascending
only to tidal limits.
Age and Growth
Unknown.
Food
Food items are algae, diatoms and detritus whih are ingested along
with associated sand and mud.
Reproduction
Fry are known to occur along the sea coast.
Parasites and predators
None reported from Iran.
Economic importance
This mullet is common in commercial catches along the west coast of
India. It is caught in castnets, stakenets and beach seines.
Conservation
Population numbers and trends are unknown so conservation
requirements cannot be ascertained.
Further work
Materials of freshwater mullets should be collected in Iranian
waters and studied for their identity and biology.
Sources
Description based on literature sources, particularly Fischer and
Bianchi (1984), Talwar and Kacker (1984) and Thomson (1997).
A single specimen from Khuzestan, Iran was examined measuring ?.
Genus Mugil
Linnaeus, 1758
This genus is characterised by a strongly flattened head, a
transverse mouth with the lateral cleft short, thin lips, lower jaw
with a symphysial knob and lower jaws meeting at symphysis with an acute angle, the maxilla end is not visible when the mouth
is closed, the anteroventral edge of the preorbital is serrate and straight and
the ventral edge is slender and pointed, no true teeth in the jaws, a very well-developed adipose
eyelid reaching to, or nearly to, the pupil, two pyloric caeca,
pharyngobranchial organ with a single valve, no vomerine or palatine
teeth, scales cycloid or feebly ctenoid, and pectoral axillary scale
long and pointed. Thomson (1997) and Harrison in Miller (2003) give a wide range of generic
characters but since only one species is found in Iranian waters, and
that rarely, the species description suffices here.
Mugil cephalus
Linnaeus, 1758
Common names
kefal or kafal, biah-e sarpahn (= flathead mullet), كفال
خاكستري (= kafal-e khakestari).
[biah, biyah, biaha Ramadiyah, anubah or asfatiya in Arabic;
striped mullet, loban, common, grey, jumping, flathead grey, sea, or
river mullet; mighach, minghaj or karul in Pakistan].
Systematics
Mugil Cephalus was originally described from the Atlantic
Ocean at the shores of Europe, entering rivers. No major relevant synonyms.
Key characters
This species is distinguished from Liza species by having
only 2 pyloric caeca, the posterior end of the maxilla is straight
rather than curved down behind the premaxilla and visible behind the
corner of the closed mouth, adipose tissue on the eye reaches the
pupil in adults, and the tip of the jaw end is on the line of the gape.
Morphology
There is a prominent adipose eyelid which leaves only a narrow slit
over the pupil and extends twice as far behind the eye as in front of it.
First dorsal fin with 4 spines, second dorsal fin with 1-2 spines
and 6-9, usually 8or 9, soft rays, anal fin with 3 spines and 7-9, usually
8, soft rays (below 5 cm there are 2 spines and 9 soft rays), pectoral
fin branched rays 14-17, and pelvic fin branched rays 5.
Lateral series scales 36-46 with 3-5 on the caudal fin, transverse
scale rows 14-15, predorsal scales 24-26 and cheek scales in 3-4 rows.
Scales on the head extend forward to the tip of the snout. Scales are
found on the caudal fin rays and at the bases of the anterior dorsal
and anal fin rays. The pectoral axillary scale is very long, about
one-third the length of the fin, and there is a pelvic axillary scale.
Scales bear an anterior mid-margin notch, the anterior corners are
very square and sharp, upper and lower margins are parallel and the
posterior margin is rounded. There are few radii (as few as 5) running
from a subcentral posterior focus to the notch. Circuli are numerous
and fine and the exposed scale surface is coarse. Gill rakers 24-80,
long, fine and crowded, count increasing with growth of fish. Pyloric caeca number 2 and the gut is long
with numerous loops, complexly coiled. The chromosome number is 2n=48
(Klinkhardt et al., 1995).
There is a distinct axillary scale at the pectoral fin, 33-36% of
pectoral fin length. The pectoral fin reaches the tenth postopercular
scale but not the level of the first dorsal fin origin; folded forward
it reaches the eye but not the pupil.
A single Iranian specimen has 4 first dorsal fin spines, 8 soft
second dorsal fin rays, 8 anal fin soft rays, 15 pectoral fin branched
rays, 5 branched pelvic fin rays, 43 scales in lateral series, and 24
total vertebrae.
Sexual dimorphism
Females grow larger and weigh more than males.
Colour
Back bluish-grey to olive-green or greyish-bown, flanks silvery and belly silvery
to white. Each scale has a dark spot which line up to give the
impression of 6-12 indistinct brownish or grey stripes. The upper rear
corner of the operculum has a golden spot. There is dark purple blotch
at the pectoral fin base. The dorsal and pectoral fins are a dark
blue-grey while the anal and caudal fins are a yellowish-green. The
dorsal and caudal fins have dusky margins. Young are a bright,
iridescent silver. Estuarine and freshwater fish may be duller overall than
marine fish.
Size
Attains 1.2 m and 7 kg.
Distribution
Found world-wide between about 51°N and 42°S. Introduced into the Caspian Sea in 1902, it has not been observed
there since and there appear to be no valid Caspian records for Iran (Dmitriev,
1946; Baltz, 1991). The introduction probably failed because the
pelagic eggs were not buoyant at the low Caspian salinities (Baltz,
1991) although Harrison in Miller (2003) notes spawning has been induced in
fresh water. However Kiabi et al. (1999) report it from the southeast
Caspian Sea and the species is being cultured at Sari on the Iranian coast of
the Caspian Sea (Iranian Fisheries Research Organization Newsletter, 40 & 41:3,
2004; and see below). Kolodar and Abdoli (2004) report it from the Gomishan Lagoon but only in farms
there.
Reported from the Shatt al Arab, Iraq near Iranian Khuzestan by Al-Nasiri
and Hoda (1975b). Akbari (2002) records this species from creeks and coastal
waters of Hormozgan. It enters rivers of southern Iran from the Persian Gulf
and Sea of Oman, notably the Sarbaz River.
Zoogeography
A widely distributed marine species, this mullet also enters and is
resident in fresh waters but is dependent on reproduction of marine
populations to maintain the freshwater ones.
Habitat
This mullet is found in surface waters of the sea and frequently
ascends rivers. It is common in coastal and estuarine waters. It
favours marine waters where the average monthly temperature is above
16°C and where summer temperatures rise above 18°C. Temperature ranges of 5-37°C are tolerated.
It can live in salinities up to 126‰. It is a fast swimmer and may leap out of the water.
Age and growth
Age at maturity for both sexes varies with water temperatures, at 1
year in the warmest waters, such as Florida, and as late as 6-8 years
in the Black Sea for example. Black Sea fish were 31-37 cm long at
maturity while in the Gulf of Mexico females were 25.8 cm and males
24.0 cm and larger. Life span lies between 11 and 21 years. Growth
rate varies with locality and ceases in warm temperate waters during mid-winter.
Food
Diet is comprised of microscopic organic matter taken in with
mouthfuls of sand. The sand probably helps grind up food in the
gizzard-like stomach. The food items are diatoms, blue-green and green
algae, foraminifers, small crustaceans and detritus, and sometimes
plankton. Rarely, swarming marine worms are eaten rather than
microscopic items, perhaps as an additional energy source prior to
spawning. Juveniles eat invertebrates.
Reproduction
In the sea, spawning occurs in surface waters near the edge of the
continental shelf over deep water after a migration from rivers. In
the Sea of Marmara, Turkey, this takes place in October and in southern India
in October-May. Eggs and larvae drift with ocean currents until they
are 20-30 mm about 2-3 months after hatching. Fry make their way into
estuaries and juveniles live in estuaries and lower reaches of rivers.
Each female is attended by several males during spawning. The males
nudge and press against the female's abdomen. The fish may quiver and
cease swimming momentarily, sometimes rising to the surface.
Fertilisation is external. Spawning occurs once yearly and some
females only spawn in alternate years after first maturity. Fecundity
is up to 4,800,000 non-adhesive, straw-coloured eggs and egg diameter
reaches 1.08 mm (some reports cite 7 million eggs). Hatching occurs in about 2 days.
Parasites and predators
Eslami and Anwar (1971) record the cestode Caryophyllaeus
fimbriceps from this species on the Caspian coast of Iran. In the
absence of valid records for this fish in Iranian Caspian waters, the
host may have been another mullet species.
Economic importance
Fisheries take place around coasts world-wide as the mullet merge
into migratory schools. In Hormozgan, is is caught in coastal waters by cast net
and stake-net but only at 1.33% by weight and 0.19% by frequency compared to
other edible fishes and with a frequency of 5% compared to other mugilids.
World-wide, it is sold fresh, frozen or salted and the roe
is made into a type of caviar. This species is also widely cultured,
for example in Israel and India, with yields up to 2434 fish per
hectare. It has been reported as being ciguatoxic (intermittently
poisonous through feeding on toxic food) (Bagnis et al., 1970)
and as being ichthyoallyeinotoxic (hallucinogenic fish poisoning)
(Halstead, 1967-1970; 1978). The latter is a sporadic and mild form of
poisoning. This species is rare in Iranian freshwaters and unlikely to
be health hazard there (Coad, 1979b).
Fingerlings from Taiwan, Egypt and Hong Kong have been cultured in
enclosed ponds in Mazandaran and the Gomishan Wetland (A. Matinfar,
pers. comm., 1995; Annual Report 1993-94, Iranian Fisheries
Research and Training Organization, Tehran, p. 43-44, 1995; Annual
Report, 1994-1995, Iranian Fisheries Research and Training
Organization, Tehran, p. 31, 1996; Annual Report, 1995-1996,
Iranian Fisheries Research and Training Organization, Tehran, p.
39, 42, 1997; Iranian Fisheries Research and Training Organization
Newsletter, Tehran, 18:5, 1997; Iranian Fisheries Research Organization
Newsletter, 40 & 41:3, 2004). 20,000 fingerlings, weighing about 0.5 g,
were imported to the Caspian Sea Ecology Research Center in Sari in 1993. Fry were cultured for 21 days on
plankton grown by manuring ponds with wheat and rice b