Further information on the catches of sturgeons and production of caviar in Iran can be found in the family account (Acipenseridae). Iran is the second largest producer of caviar, after Russia, with 20% of the world market valued in excess of $50 million (Khajehpour-Khouei, 2000).

Sturgeon roe or eggs are known as caviar and form an expensive delicacy (Bolourchi, 1997). The word caviar may come from Farsi "kaya-dar", "khay-dar" or "khay-var" meaning "having eggs", from خاگ‌آور or khāgāvar for roe-generator, or from "chav-jar" meaning "a cake of strength or power" or "bread of lovers" in allusion to its reputed aphrodisiac qualities; havyar in Turkish means "fish eggs" but the origin of this word seems in some dispute among etymologists and it may be Greek (Georgacas, 1978; Sternin and Doré, 1993; Bolourchi, 1997).

The history of the caviar industry in Iran is a complex subject, variously reported in the popular media and in legend. The Russians are said to have obtained writs from Moslem leaders in the Caucasus in the early nineteenth century to the effect that Moslems could not eat these fishes, leaving the valuable caviar fisheries for Russian fishermen to monopolise (Kayhan International, 1 December 1962). The caviar industry was first granted by the Iranian government to Stepan Martinovitch Lianozoff (or Lionosoff, Lianozov) an Armenian subject of Czarist Russia in 1873 (or 1876 or 1879, accounts vary), regularly renewed and later transferred to his only son George. In 1896 the lease was renewed at an annual cost of 450,000 gold francs (Fortescue, 1920). In one version of events, Martin (the grandson of Stepan) disappeared in 1923, kidnapped while meeting two ravishing Armenian sisters, leaving only a letter ceding his rights in the caviar fishery to the Soviets (Tehran Mossavar Magazine, 18 April 1952; Time, 9 February 1953; L'Illustré, Lausanne, 20 January 1955; Tehran Radio, 6 May 1959). Another version simply has Martin selling his rights to the Soviet Government (Mirfendereski, 2000) or refusing to pay during the vicissitudes of the Russian Revolution. In 1919 another Russian subject, Grigor Petrovic Vanitsof rented the southern Caspian fisheries for 20 years but could not fulfill his obligations. A joint Irano-Soviet company, "Mahi Iran", formed under Soviet pressure on the Iranian government, was given a monopoly of the foreign sale of caviar in 1927 (in 1923 the fisheries of Astara, Anzali and Hasan Kiadeh had been occupied by Soviet troops and declared part of the Soviet fisheries). The Irano-Soviet company was run almost entirely by Soviet technicians and the caviar was marketed as of Russian origin (Kayhan International, 27 June 1959; Saffron, 2002). One part of the Persia/U.S.S.R. agreement banned chemical and explosive uses for capturing fish (Mirfendereski, 2000). The fishery was nationalised in 1953 and administered by the Iranian Fishery Company (Sherkat Shilat). Most of the catch was sold to the former U.S.S.R. (Anonymous, 1961b) and Soviet scientists organised caviar production until the Iranian Revolution in 1979-1980 (Taylor, 1997). Greenspan (1989) details more recent skullduggery.

Keyvanfar (1988) described the preparation of Iranian caviar from the various species and the following is taken from that account. Emadi (1994) and De Meulenaer and Raymakers (1996) also give accounts of this process and the kinds of caviar obtained. Sturgeons are alive or very fresh when brought to the processing plant. They are usually killed by a blow to the head. Sex is determined with an awl-shaped instrument inserted into the cloaca, pulling out some ova. The female is split open along the belly and the eggs and the enveloping adipose and connective tissues removed. The eggs are generally about 10% of the body weight. However, an average beluga of 68 kg can yield 18 kg of caviar in Iran (ca. 26%) (V. D. Vladykov, in litt., 1966), and a 40 kg beluga from Iran yielded 8 kg of caviar (20%) (L'Illustré, Lausanne, 20 January 1955). The largest amount obtained from a beluga was 360 kg of caviar (V. D. Vladykov, in litt., 1966). The other species give an average of 6 kg of caviar in Iran. The eggs are separated from the tissues by breaking the ovaries into pieces by hand and delicately pressing the eggs through a 10 x 10 mm screen. This takes only a few minutes. The eggs are then washed in fresh, cold (8-12°C) water for 30-40 seconds to remove fragments of ovarian tissue. The eggs are separated from the washing water by collecting them on a very fine mesh screen, the process taking 3-4 minutes. This type of washing is not done with A. stellatus because of the fragility of the egg membrane in this species.

The type and quality of the caviar is determined next and they depend on the colour, diameter and membrane strength of the egg. Large eggs with a strong membrane and a clear, grey, dark brown or gold colour are the best and are packed in metal containers. Small eggs with fragile membranes and sombre colouring are second quality and used for pressed caviar or bulk caviar. Pasteurised caviar is made from eggs with weak membranes since the heat solidifies the membranes. Salt is added at a rate of 4-6% to the weight of the eggs, varying with the season and being higher in the warm summer months. The salt is 99.2% sodium chloride and only 1-10 kg of eggs can be salted at one time so that salting is uniform. Boric acid and borax are added in a ratio of 2:3, comprising 20% of the total salt added, to aid in conserving the caviar. Caviar for export to the U.S.A. is exempt from this addition of boric acid and borax and only salt is used, 100 g for each 1 kg of caviar. The salt is mixed delicately with the eggs by hand for 50-250 seconds. A good salting process is essential for the preparation of caviar and is evidenced by the eggs having small white lines on their surface, the membrane becomes stronger and more resistant, the egg proteins become denser and coagulate, the eggs lose their adhesiveness, liquid stops coming from the eggs, and the density of the brine coming from the process increases. When these factors are detected the salting process is stopped. A salting process which is too long removes too much protein from the eggs and causes the eggs to clump together. A process which is too short removes too little water from the eggs and these eggs lose water gradually over several days in their container and become soft and semi-liquid. The eggs are then separated from the brine on a very fine mesh screen.

The U.S. Customs Service produces a description of caviar for the trade community (www.customs.ustreas.gov/imp-exp1/comply/caviar.htm downloaded on 20 July 1999). Caviar is graded on grain size, colour, flavour and firmness. Gold coloured caviar is the rarest and most desirable followed by light grey. Large grains are preferred over smaller ones.

There is a demand for caviar without borax and boric acid and such chemicals as methyl parahydroxy benzoate and propyl parahydroxy benzoate have been examined in Iran as alternatives (Iranian Fisheries Research and Training Organization Newsletter, 7:3, 1995).

Fresh caviar is not salted and requires careful refrigeration; its shelf life is short, a maximum of six weeks. Lightly salted caviar is called "malossol" from the Russian for "little salt", usually a 2.4% content in Iranian caviar which is very good quality compared to some caviar which contains up to 11% salt. The higher the salt content the longer the shelf life. Chilled malossol kept at -2 to 4°C will be edible for up to three months. Pressed caviar is prepared in a similar fashion except the salt content is higher, at 7% in the finished product. It will keep for a long time at 4-8°C. Borax gives a longer shelf life too and is less dangerous to human health than the amount of salt needed to give the caviar an acceptable shelf life. Most caviar consumed world-wide is pasteurised as some countries do not accept caviar with borax and higher salt levels are not acceptable to consumers. Pasteurised caviar has a shelf life of 12-15 months (De Meulenaer and Raymakers, 1996). Caviar should not be frozen or pasteurised as this affects the taste. Good quality caviar must be refrigerated. U.S. packaged caviar also contained tragacanth gum according to labels on jars from the 1960s.

The caviar is placed in boxes of 0.5 to 2 kg, each box being filled to within 1-2 cm of the lid. Sternin and Doré (1993) give tin sizes of 0.6 and 1.8 kg with a limited amount of 100, 200 and 300 g tins - most caviar is repacked at its destination in 30 g, 50 g, 125 g, 250 g, 500 g and 1 kg tins and jars). The lid is pressed on centrally to exclude as much air as possible and the excess brine is allowed to drain away by stacking the boxes vertically for 1-15 minutes. One further press is carried out manually, the outside of the box is cleaned, and boxes are stacked in piles of five for 20-24 hours in the cold season (October-March) and 12 hours in the warm season. During this period, the pile of boxes is turned over several times to remove the last traces of excess brine. After one last press on the centre of each box to ensure the lid adheres to the eggs and no air remains, the box is sealed hermetically with a ring of rubber. Well-prepared caviar has lost 4-6% of its initial weight, has a salt content of 3-5% and the eggs are separate and non-adhesive. Caviar in this form will keep for a long time at 0-2°C.

A microbiological analysis of Iranian caviar imported to Turkey has been carried out by Altug and Bayrak (2003) who did not find any pathogenic and toxin producing Salmonella spp. and Clostridium perfringens. Coliforms, bacteria and yeasts showed some high counts, perhaps contamination during production stages.

First quality caviar consists of healthy, non-fragile eggs from one species with a large or medium size. The caviar is dry, of uniform colour - between clear-grey and dark-grey - without odour or abnormal taste. The box is filled within a centimetre of the edge. Second quality caviar has eggs which may be fragile, are of large, medium or small size, their colour varies from clear-grey to black, and they may be damp. Yellowish or brown caviar from A. gueldenstaedtii is acceptable for these two qualities of caviar. Egg size is determined by the cubic centimetres occupied by 100 eggs, e.g. for A. gueldenstaedtii large eggs occupy >1.9 cc, medium 1.4-1.9 cc and small <1.4 cc and for A. stellatus large eggs occupy >1.3 cc, medium 0.9-1.3 cc and small <0.9 cc. Egg sizes are not determined for Huso huso and A. nudiventris. Eggs of the former are much larger than A. gueldenstaedtii eggs while those of the latter are nearly the same size as A. stellatus eggs.

Sturgeon species cannot be readily identified from the size or colour of the eggs making up caviar. Diet, pigmentation of the adult, and age of the fish all appear to influence egg colour. Huso huso eggs are often light to dark grey, Acipenser gueldenstaedtii eggs are blackish to brown or almost golden and A. stellatus eggs are black according to traders. White caviar where the egg has a red spot on it is from albino fish. Light grey beluga and light yellow oscietra caviar are now very rare, in the past being found in only a small proportion of the species population which itself is now in decline (De Meulenaer and Raymakers, 1996). Le Comptoir du Caviar, which markets caviar (www.gourmet-tradition.com/en/comptoir_du_caviar.html, downloaded on 19 March 1999), describes Iranian sevruga as grey to black with fine grains and an iodised taste, Iranian oscietre as grey-black with bronze shades, middle-sized grains, very iodised with a little taste of walnut, and Iranian beluga as very rare, dark or light grey, large grains and a fine and gusty savour.

The single biggest market for caviar is first-class airline passengers. Supermarkets, hotels, restaurants and specialised retailers also market caviar. France consumed the largest amount in the 1990s, about 60-80 t, while Germany consumed 40-50 t. The Shilat packages its product carefully to ensure consumers know the caviar is genuinely Iranian. The large tins in which the caviar is packed keep their contents edible for 12-18 months at -2 to -3°C (the oil content and added salt prevent freezing). These tins are sealed in a piece of net which in turn is sealed on both sides with consecutive numbers, placed in a sealed linen bag and then in a wooden box. Each tin is also marked with the loading station number (where the fish are brought after capture to have their caviar removed) and also the number of the individual fish scratched on the side. Tins are shipped by air in "cooltainers" which have their own refrigeration unit. These large tins are vacuum-packed into smaller ones in packing centres in Europe (Christie, 1995). The main market in 2000 was Japan to which 30% of Iranian production was exported. Permanent markets in Europe are Switzerland, Germany, France, Luxembourg and Spain (I.F.R.O. Newsletter, 26:3, 2001) and the European Union is often the biggest importer of Iranian caviar. Iran was the top exporter of caviar in the year 2000 at 71.5 t valued at $34.4 million (IFRO Newsletter, 28:2, 2001). This is a value increase of 17% although the amount was less than in 1999 at 84.9 t. In 2002, 87% of caviar came from Iran (www.caviar.ru/english/digest.htm, downloaded 12 December 2002) although IRNA (8 December 2002) gives a figure of of almost 50%. The caviar export quota was 50,505 kg for Iran in 2006 (iran-daily.com, downloaded 28 July 2006) or 44.3 t (Iran Daily, 11 September 2006).

Iranian caviar sold in major airports like Heathrow in London comes in several kinds. Caviar House markets imperial, which has large gold grains and was previously reserved for the Shah's family (from Acipenser persicus); beluga, light to dark grey and large grained; royal black consisting of large deep-black grains from a 20-40 year old osetr; "oscietre", which is dark grey-brown to a golden yellowish; classic grey, a pale grey with large grains; and sevryuga, which is dark grey and fine grained. Prices vary with quality and time as shown below (personal observations):-
 

	Imperial	Beluga	Royal Black	Oscietre	Classic Grey	Sevryuga
December 1993
50 g	£82	£76	£48	£36	£38	£23
1000 g	£1411	£1318	£819	£621	£656	£399
September 1995
50 g	£94	£101	£54	£48	£40	£36
1000 g	£1640	£1759	£939	£836	£697	£630
September 1997
50 g	£89	£88	£53	£47	£39	£34
1000 g	£1536	£1540	£912	£812	£680	£590
November 1999
50 g	£140	£160	£75	£60	£65	£53
1000 g	£2420	£2770	£1312	£1060	£1138	£920
November 2000
50 g	£184	£208	£114	£95	£99	£79
1000 g	£3541	£3987	£2177	£1818	£1894	£1527
April 2002
50 g	£184	£208	£114	£95	£99	£79
1000 g	not given	not given	not given	not given	not given	not given

The types of caviar listed changed in 2003 as follows:-

 

	Imperial XO	Beluga	Beluga XXL	Royal Black	Royal Black XL	Oscietre Gold	Classic Grey
March 2003
50 g	£289	£160	£309	£11 6	£197	£119	£125

The types of caviar listed changed in 2004 as follows:-

 

	Imperial XO	Beluga	Beluga XXL	Royal Black	Royal Black XL	Classic Grey	Sevruga	Oscietre	Imperial
September 2004
50 g	£145	£160	£195	£88	£114	£66	£56	£75	£98
100 g	£275	£318	£385	£175	£225	£129	£110	£149	£195
200 g	£540	£619	£750	£340	£435	£247	£221	£297	£385

The types and weights of caviar listed changed in 2006 as follows for "Prestige Selection":-

 

	Beluga	Royal Black	Classic Grey	Sevruga	Oscietre	Oscietre Gold*
March 2006
50 g	£155	£125	£105	£95	£120	£130
125 g	£380	£305	£255	£230	£295	£320
250 g	£750	£595	£495	£450	£580	£630

* = golden-coloured eggs from a mature oscietre.

The types and weights of caviar listed changed in 2006 as follows for "Prunier":-

 

	Traditional	Saint James	Great American	Paris	Heritage
March 2006
50 g	£65	£85	£95	£120	£155
125 g	£155	£205	£230	£295	£380
250 g	£305	£405	£455	£585	£755
500 g	£605	£805	£905	£1165	£1505
March 2007 (500 g not listed)
50 g	£75	£110	(not listed)	£120	£170
125 g	£185	£270	(not listed)	£295	£415
250 g	£370	£535	(not listed)	£585	£830

The types and weights of caviar listed changed in 2006 as follows for "Private Reserve":-

 

	Royal Black XL	Imperial XO	Beluga XXL
March 2006
50 g	£135	£145	£195
125 g	£330	£335	£480
250 g	£650	£695	£950

Prices for these brands were not listed in March 2007, and were only available on request, indicative of both scarcity and constantly changing prices.